Ulcerative Colitis Disease free essay sample

The two main drugs that are being used at the moment is balsalazide and Sulfasalazine. Both drugs are classed under a treatment called 5-ASA. For this type of treatment these are the two main drugs used by all doctors. [6] Ulcerative colitis is grouped under a name of a disease called Inflammatory Bowel disease. Inflammation has a literal meaning of â€Å"being set on fire†. Inflammation normally occurs when a tissue has been damaged or destroyed; it is like the body’s response to tell you something is wrong [2]. In other words Ulcerative colitis in which the large intestine, but not the small, becomes inflamed and ulcerated. In Ulcerative colitis it is only the inner lining of the bowel, and not it’s full thickness, which is affected. Ulcerative colitis may affect the rectum, when it is usually called ‘proctitis’, or it may affect the bowel from anus to the top left of the colon (splenic flexure). We will write a custom essay sample on Ulcerative Colitis Disease or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page [6] Where does ulcerative colitis occur? Ulcerative colitis occurs in the colon. It always involves the rectum. It should be continuous, but can also be confined to patches in the colon. Some patients just experience inflammation in the rectum, others have it in the rectum and the sigmoid colon. Firstly genetics, it seems that the genes you inherit from your parents plays a big role of developing ulcerative colitis. Studies have shown that around 16% of people who have the disease have a close relative with the same condition. Scientist have found many genes that are able to code for ulcerative colitis, but how they do not know. Secondly the environmental factors around you have a big play on ulcerative colitis: Where and how we live also seems to play a role in the development of ulcerative colitis. The condition is much more common in certain parts of the world namely, urban areas in northern parts of Western Europe and America. A number of environmental factors have been suggested, including. Diet   the typical Western diet is high in carbohydrates and fats, which may explain why Asian people, who tend to eat a diet lower in carbohydrates and fats, are less affected by ulcerative colitis Hygiene  Ã‚  children  are being brought up in increasingly germ-free environments, but it is possible that the immune system requires exposure to germs to develop properly (this is known as the hygiene hypothesis, and has also been suggested as a possible cause for the rise in allergic conditions such as  asthma) However, no factors have been positively identified. Symptoms of Ulcerative colitis The most typical characteristics of ulcerative colitis is bloody diarrhoea; bloody diarrhoea makes us think of ulcerative colitis. The second most typical symptom of ulcerative colitis is the false urge of wanting to excrete. There is also symptom’s that come and go for example stomach cramps. [2] Solution to the problem Balsalazide 6. 75g VS Sulfasalazine 3g [4] Background: Sulfasalazine is accepted therapy for active ulcerative colitis, but side effects and intolerance are common. Balsalazide is an azo-bounded pro drug which releases 5-aminosalicylic acid into the colon, but uses an inert carrier molecule. The aim of the trail was to compare the efficiency and safety of sulfasalazine, 3g, with balsalazide, 6. 75g in the initial daily treatment of mild to moderate ulcerative colitis. Methodology To start off with the study had 50 patients. 26 allocated to balsalazide, 6. 75g/day and 24 to sulfasalazine, 3g/day. The treatment groups were well matched for age sex and weight. Patients were recruited from three hospitals in northern England. Patients gave written consent and local research ethical committee approval was obtained. Adults with newly diagnosed or recently relapsed ulcerative colitis were included. To determine if the patients had ulcerative colitis they performed a sigmoidoscopy where they look around your colon with a camera. Also they made sure they done a negative stool culture. The study was a randomized, multicentre, double blind, parallel group study comparing balsalazide and sulfasalazine. Each medicine was administered in three divided doses, in the treatment of acute ulcerative colitis. Some patients for the first two days were given a placebo to measure bowel baseline habit. Treatment for the next two days compromised of balsalazide, 4. 5g and sulfasalazine 2g, this is equivalent to two thirds the normal dose. On day 5 of the treatment the dose give was the maximum. Patients were treated over 8 weeks and visited the study sites at 0,2,4 and 8 weeks. At each visit weight, pulse, general well-being, bowel frequencies, the presence of blood in the http://images. emedicinehealth. com/images/healthwise/medical/hw/h9991506_004. jpgstool, consistency of mucus and blood in the stool. Picture 3, A sigmoidoscopy A sigmoidoscopy was performed at weeks 0,4 and 8, with rectal biopsies for histology at weeks 0 and 8. A Sigmoidoscopy is a procedure where a doctor or nurse looks into the rectum and sigmoid colon, using an instrument called a sigmoidoscopy (microscopic camera). At the end of the study, an overall assessment was done to see if the patient achieved remission. Remission was defined as a stool frequency of two or less per day without blood and with a sigmoidoscopy appearance of normal rectal mucosa or minimal erythema.

Anecdote and Anecdotal

Anecdote and Anecdotal Anecdote and Anecdotal Anecdote and Anecdotal By Maeve Maddox The historian Procopius of Caesarea lived during the reign of the Roman emperor Justinian (482-565). His history of the wars of Justinian was published during his lifetime, but another of his works, now referred to as The Secret History, remained unpublished until the manuscript was discovered in the Vatican Library and published in 1623. Although unpublished for centuries, the existence of The Secret History was known earlier, because it is mentioned in a 10th century encyclopedia called the Suda; there, the work is referred to by the Greek word Anekdota, which in Latin is Anecdota, â€Å"unpublished writings.† A very good reason that the work was not published in the time of Justinian is the fact that it contains extremely unflattering stories about the private lives of the emperor and his wife. The earliest meaning of anecdote in English is â€Å"Secret, private, or hitherto unpublished narratives or details of history.† Later, the word came to have its present meaning: â€Å"The narrative of a detached incident, or of a single event, told as being in itself interesting or striking.† As Vice-President, Coolidge and his vivacious wife Grace were invited to quite a few parties, where the legend of Silent Cal was born. It is from this time that most of the jokes and anecdotes involving Coolidge originate. The adjective anecdotal dates from the 18th century. It can mean simply â€Å"pertaining to anecdotes,† but in modern usage it is often used in the sense of â€Å"unreliable.† anecdotal: based on or consisting of reports or observations of usually unscientific observers Merriam-Webster Unabridged anecdotal: (of an account) not necessarily true or reliable, because based on personal accounts rather than facts or research. OxfordDictionaries The legal term hearsay refers to â€Å"anecdotal evidence/testimony†: hearsay: second-hand evidence in which the witness is not telling what he/she knows personally, but what others have said to him/her. Legal Dictionary at law.com Examples of the use of anecdotal and anecdotally: I hope you realize that youre using the same rhetoric that the people who dont believe in climate change use. Youre using anecdotal warmth in a particular part of the globe to prove climate change. The medical community has soundly refuted these theories [that autism is caused by vaccines], but a very passionate group of parents and researchers continue to disagree, based on anecdotal evidence. The recent medical controversy over whether vaccinations cause autism reveals a habit of human cognition- thinking anecdotally comes naturally, whereas thinking scientifically does not. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:30 Synonyms for â€Å"Meeting†Work of Art TitlesWriting Styles (with Examples)

Intrigue at the Immune Synapse Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Intrigue at the Immune Synapse - Assignment Example This also allows the persistence of infectious organisms inside cells, leading to chronic infections. The development of high-resolution microscopy techniques and computer enhancement of previously used imaging methods to create three-dimensional images has allowed visualization and observation of immune synapses. 5. The author states, ‘virtually all the surface (cytoplasmic membrane) proteins involved in immune cells’ recognition of disease (pathogens) have been identified and named.† If this is true, then why is the immune synapse such a profound discovery? Although the proteins involved have been identified and named, their roles and how they bring about communication between immune cells has not been entirely discovered. These discoveries, including that on the immune synapse, can be made by observing or ‘just watching’ the cells and proteins at work. The team of Charles A. Janeway, Jr., at Yale University performed the following experiment in 1988: they fitted T cells tightly into the pores of a membrane, which was then immersed in a solution. A stimulant to activate T cells was added to the solution on only 1 side of the membrane. They then detected proteins secreted by activated T cells in the solution containing the stimulant, but the proteins were absent in the stimulant-free solution on the other side of the membrane. This experiment demonstrated the ability of immune cells to secrete proteins after activation specifically in the direction of the stimulant. The neuronal and immune synapses are similar as they both involve communication and signal transduction between two cells through the interaction and activity of specific proteins. Neuronal and immune synapses also seem to share some common proteins, such as the Agrin protein and the Neuropilin-1 receptor. The synapse structure of both cell types forms a bull’s-eye pattern. However, they have differences too. Neuronal

Scenario Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Scenario Analysis - Essay Example In this distribution plan, the major focus in how CB’s products are to reach the intended customers. In order to be able to sell products to customers, the first significant factor that CB ought to consider doing is carrying out a market research. Market research helps in providing the company with information about the customer; what the customer normally purchases and where the customer does the purchase (Debelak, 2005). For CB to also successfully reach its customers it must also determine how their product will reach the intended customer. Additionally, the company must have the knowledge on whoever will be involved in the product delivery process right from the company’s warehouse to the consumer. This is what is called the distribution channel or chain. Therefore, defining distribution channel and the role that the company plays in distribution process are some of the significant components of CB’s marketing plan. Moreover, through analyzing the distributio n channels and evaluating them to the resources of the company, it is possible to determine which distribution alternative is best for the company. This is one of the distribution alternatives that CB can consider using. Direct selling is a form of product distribution whereby the producer directly sells the product to the customer. One of the oldest direct selling forms’ is peddling; however, currently there are modern forms of direct selling, which include party plan sales, personal contact arrangements, one-on-one demonstrations, and internet sales (Debelak, 2005). Therefore direct selling can also be defined as the direct personal demonstration, presentation, and products’ sale to customers, usually at their places of convenience. Since CB is a company that makes sales to various companies worldwide, it needs to consider direct selling. One compelling reason for this is the report that was recently revealed by the World Federation of Direct Selling Associations (WFDSA). The

Thunder Heart analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Thunder Heart analysis - Essay Example Ray is able to suspect the existence of conspiracy and cover-up in the entire murder saga which puts him at loggerheads with his co-agent in the investigations. The environmental impact that the mining of uranium in the local reservation has created, is evident in the poor state of the areas poor water and dirty condition. The mining has further led to major conflict between two powerful forces leading to the death of many people in the small town which exposes a number of social evils such as crimes, corruption and moral decadence that had been taking place in the region. The cultural attributes of the Native Americans is made evident in the movie in a number of occasion owing to the fact that investigations on the murder of a former political activist on a Native American Reservation in South Dakota. F.B.I agent Ray Levoi has been selected for the task of leading the investigation mainly because of his familiarity with the culture of the Natives owing to the fact that he is from a mixed race background. The film brings out diverse American architecture which is multicultural in nature with a lot being borrowed from the Native American culture (Marubbio, 102). The landscape in the region in which the movie is set portrays diverse nature of the American terrain. Mountainous landscape is an indication of a secure environment marked by the existence of natural features that could easily act as camouflage to criminal activities. The cultural artifacts of the Native Americans such as peace pipe, moccasins, and teepee are made evident particularly among the people that The FBI agent meets and interviews over the death the politician. The use of native plants and animals are very important part of the lives of the Indians. As Ray tours the region in which he has been assigned, he notices a number of cultural practices that he had been told by his parent but had never experienced in his entire life. As much as he was against the

Mechanism Of Action Of Warfarin Biology Essay

Mechanism Of Action Of Warfarin Biology Essay Warfarin is an anticoagulant medication that is used to prevent thrombosis (clots) and embolism in many disorders. Warfarin activity has to be monitored by frequent blood testing for the International Normalized Ratio (INR). Warfarin is a synthetic derivative of coumarin, a chemical found naturally in many plants it decreases blood coagulation by interfering with vitamin K metabolism. Mechanism of Action of Warfarin Warfarin is vitamin K antagonist that produce its anticoagulant effect by interfering with the cyclic interconversion of vitamin K and its 2,3 epoxide (vitamin K epoxide). Vitamin K is a cofactor for the posttranslational carboxylation of glutamate residues to ÃŽÂ ³-carboxyglutamates on the N-terminal regions of vitamin K-dependent proteins (Whitlon, et al., 1978; Fasco, et al., 1982) .123456 These coagulation factors (factors II, VII, IX, and X) require ÃŽÂ ³-carboxylation for their biological activity. Coumarins produce their anticoagulant effect by inhibiting the vitamin K conversion cycle, thereby causing hepatic production of partially carboxylated and decarboxylated proteins with reduced procoagulant activity.78 In addition to their anticoagulant effect, the vitamin K antagonists inhibit carboxylation of the regulatory anticoagulant proteins C and S and therefore have the potential to exert a procoagulant effect. In the presence of calcium ions, carboxylation causes a conformational change in coagulation proteins91011 that promotes binding to cofactors on phospholipid surfaces. The carboxylation reaction requires the reduced form of vitamin K (vitamin KH2), molecular oxygen, and carbon dioxide, and is linked to the oxidation of vitamin KH2 to vitamin K epoxide. Vitamin K epoxide is then recycled to vitamin KH2 through two reductase steps. The first, which is sensitive to vitamin K antagonists,123 reduces vitamin K epoxide to vitamin K1 (the natural food form of vitamin K1), while the second, which is relatively insensitive to vitamin K antagonists, reduces vitamin K1 to vitamin KH2. Treatment with vitamin K antagonists leads to the depletion of vitamin KH2, thereby limiting the ÃŽÂ ³-carboxylation of the vitamin K-dependent coagulant proteins. The effect of coumarins can be counteracted by vitamin K1 (either ingested in food or administered therapeutically) because the second reductase ste p is relatively insensitive to vitamin K antagonists (Fig 1). Patients treated with a large dose of vitamin K1 can also become warfarin resistant for up to a week because vitamin K1 accumulates in the liver and is available to the coumarin-insensitive reductase. Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Warfarin Warfarin is a racemic mixture of two optically active isomers, the R and S forms in roughly equal proportion. It has high bioavailability,1920 is rapidly absorbed from the GI tract, and reaches maximal blood concentrations in healthy volunteers in 90 min after oral administration.1921 Racemic warfarin has a half-life of 36 to 42 h, circulates bound to plasma proteins (mainly albumin), and accumulates in the liver where the two isomers are metabolically transformed by different pathways.22 The dose-response relationship of warfarin is influenced by genetic and environmental factors, including a recently identified common mutation in the gene coding for one of the common cytochrome P450 enzymes (2C9), the hepatic enzyme responsible for oxidative metabolism of the warfarin S-isomer.2324 This mutation likely contributes to the variability in dose response to warfarin among healthy subjects.25 In addition to known and unknown genetic factors, various disease states, drugs, and dietary fac tors can interfere with the response to warfarin. The anticoagulant response to warfarin is influenced by pharmacokinetic factors, including drug interactions that affect the absorption or metabolic clearance of warfarin, and pharmacodynamic factors that alter the hemostatic response to given concentrations of the drug. Variability in anticoagulant response also occurs as a result of inaccuracies in laboratory testing, patient noncompliance, and miscommunication between patient and physician. Other drugs may influence the pharmacokinetics of warfarin by reducing GI absorption or by disrupting its metabolic clearance. For example, the anticoagulant effect of warfarin is reduced by cholestyramine, which impairs its absorption, and is potentiated by drugs that inhibit warfarin clearance through stereoselective or nonselective pathways.252627 Stereoselective interactions affect oxidative metabolism of either the S-isoner or R-isomer of warfarin.2627 Inhibition of S-warfarin metabolism is more important clinically because this isomer is five times more potent as a vitamin K antagonist than the R-isomer.2627 Clearance of S-isomer warfarin is inhibited by phenylbutazone,2829 sulfinpyrazone,30 metronidazole,31 and trimethoprim- sulfamethoxazole,32 each of which potentiates the effect of warfarin on the prothrombin time (PT). In contrast, drugs such as cimetidine and omeprazole that inhibit clearance of the R-isomer have only moderate potentiating effects on the PT in patients treated with warfarin.272833 Amiodarone inhibits the metabolic clearance of both the S-isomer and R-isomer and potentiates the anticoagulant effect of warfarin.34 The anticoagulant effect is inhibited by barbiturates,32 rifampicin,34 and carbamazepine,32 which increase its metabolic clearance by inducing hepatic mixed oxidase activity. Although long-term alcohol use has a potential to increase the clearance of warfarin through a similar mechanism, consumption of even relatively large amounts of wine was shown in one study29 to have little influen ce on PT in subjects treated with warfarin. For a more thorough discussion of the effect of enzyme induction on warfarin therapy, the reader is referred to a critical review (Table 2 ).35 The pharmacodynamics of warfarin are subject to genetic and environmental variability. Hereditary resistance to warfarin occurs in rats36 as well as in human beings.3738 Patients with genetic warfarin resistance require doses fivefold to 20-fold higher than average to achieve an anticoagulant effect. This disorder is attributed to altered affinity of the receptor for warfarin since the plasma warfarin levels required to achieve an anticoagulant effect are increased. Two mis-sense mutations in the factor IX propeptide have been described394041 that cause bleeding without excessive prolongation of PT. When affected individuals are treated with coumarin drugs, factor IX activity decreases to about 1 to 3%, while levels of other vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors decrease to 30 to 40% of normal. These mutations are uncommon and have been estimated to occur in Subjects receiving long-term warfarin therapy are sensitive to fluctuating levels of dietary vitamin K,4243 which is provided predominantly by phylloquinone in plant material.43 The phylloquinone content of a wide range of foodstuffs has been listed by Sadowski and associates.44 Phylloquinone acts through the warfarin-insensitive reductase reaction.45 Important fluctuations in vitamin K intake occur in both apparently healthy and sick subjects.46 Increased intake of dietary vitamin K sufficient to reduce the anticoagulant response to warfarin42 occurs in patients on weight-reduction diets consuming green vegetables or receiving vitamin K-containing supplements, and in patients treated with IV supplements containing vitamin K. Reduced dietary vitamin K1 intake potentiates the effect of warfarin in sick patients treated with antibiotics and IV fluids without vitamin K supplementation and in states of fat malabsorption. Hepatic dysfunction potentiates the response to warfarin through im paired synthesis of coagulation factors. Hypermetabolic states produced by fever or hyperthyroidism increase warfarin responsiveness, probably by increasing the catabolism of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors.4748 Drugs may influence the pharmacodynamics of warfarin by inhibiting synthesis or increasing clearance of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors or by interfering with other pathways of hemostasis (Table 3 ). The anticoagulant effect of warfarin is augmented by the second-generation and third-generation cephalosporins, which inhibit the cyclic interconversion of vitamin K,4950 by thyroxine, which increases the metabolism of coagulation factors,48 and by clofibrate, through an unknown mechanism.51 Doses5253 of salicylates > 1.5 g/d also augment the anticoagulant effect of warfarin,54 possibly because these drugs have warfarin-like activity. Acetaminophen has also been reported to augment the anticoagulant effect of warfarin,52 although this contention has been challeng ed (see below). Although heparin potentiates the anticoagulant effect of warfarin, in therapeutic doses, it produces only slight prolongation of the PT. Drugs such as aspirin,55 nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs,56 high doses of penicillins,5758 and moxolactam50 increase the risk of warfarin-associated bleeding by inhibiting platelet function. Of these, aspirin is the most important because of its widespread use and prolonged effect.59 Aspirin and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs can also produce gastric erosions that increase the risk of upper-GI bleeding.58 The risk of clinically important bleeding is heightened when high doses of aspirin are taken in combination with high-intensity warfarin therapy (INR, 3.0 to 4.5).5560 In two studies, one study61 in patients with prosthetic heart valves and the other study62 in asymptomatic individuals at high risk of coronary artery disease, low doses of aspirin (100 mg/d and 75 mg/d, respectively) were also associated with increased rates of minor bleeding when combined with moderate-intensity and low-intensity warfarin anticoagulation. The mechanisms by which erythromycin63 and some anabolic steroids64 potentiate the anticoagulant effect of warfarin are unknown. Sulfonamides and several broad-spectrum antibiotic compounds may augment the anticoagulant effect of warfarin by eliminating bacterial flora and aggravating vitamin K deficiency in patients whose diet is deficient of vitamin K.65 Wells and associates66 performed a critical analysis of articles reporting possible interaction between drugs or foods and warfarin. Studies were assigned to one category if the interaction was considered highly probable, to a second category if interaction was probable, to a third level if judged possible, and to a fourth level if doubtful. Of 751 citations retrieved, pertinent results from 172 original articles are summarized in Table 3. Strong evidence of interaction was found for 39 of the 81 different drugs and foods appraised; 17 potentiate warfarin effect, 10 inhibit, and 12 produce no effect. Many other drugs have been reported to either interact with oral anticoagulants or alter the PT response to warfarin,6768 but convincing evidence of a causal association is lacking. In a case-control study,52 low to moderate doses of acetaminophen (nine or more tablets per week) were reported to be associated with excessively prolonged INR values. The presence of a causal association bet ween acetaminophen use and potentiation of a warfarin effect is uncertain. The article52 was supported by an editorial,53 but has been challenged by personal experiences (case series) cited in two letters6970 and by the results of a prospective study71 in normal volunteers. However, until more information is presented, it would be prudent to monitor the INR more frequently when acetaminophen is used in this quantity by patients during warfarin therapy. Indeed, it would be reasonable to monitor the PT more frequently when any drug therapy is added or withdrawn from the regimen of a patient treated with an oral anticoagulant. DRUG INTERACTIONS: Your doctor or pharmacist may already be aware of any possible drug interactions and may be monitoring you for them. Do not start, stop, or change the dosage of any drug, vitamin, or herbal product without checking with your doctor or pharmacist first.Warfarin interacts with many prescription, nonprescription, vitamin, and herbal products. This includes medications that are applied to the skin or inside the vagina or rectum. The following interactions listed do not contain all possible drug interactions. The interactions with warfarin usually result in an increase or decrease in the blood-thinning (anticoagulant) effect. Your doctor or other health care professional should closely monitor you to prevent serious bleeding or clotting problems. While taking warfarin, it is very important to tell your doctor or pharmacist of any changes in medications, vitamins, or herbal products that you are taking.This drug should not be used with the following medications because v ery serious interactions may occur: imatinib, mifepristone.If you are currently using any of these medications listed above, tell your doctor or pharmacist before starting warfarin.Aspirin and aspirin-like drugs (salicylates) and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, naproxen, celecoxib) may have effects similar to warfarin. These drugs may increase the risk of bleeding problems if taken during treatment with warfarin. Carefully check all prescription/nonprescription product labels (including drugs applied to the skin such as pain-relieving creams) since the products may contain NSAIDs or salicylates. Talk to your doctor about using a different medication (such as acetaminophen) to treat pain/fever. Low-dose aspirin and related drugs (such as clopidogrel, ticlopidine) should be continued if prescribed by your doctor for specific medical reasons such as heart attack or stroke prevention. Consult your doctor or pharmacist for more details.Many herbal medicati ons have blood-thinning or blood-clotting effects, and some may directly affect warfarin. Tell your doctor before taking any herbal products, especially bromelains, coenzyme Q10, cranberry, danshen, dong quai, fenugreek, garlic, ginkgo biloba, ginseng, goldenseal, and St. Johns wort, among others.This medication may interfere with a certain laboratory test to measure theophylline levels, possibly causing false test results. Make sure laboratory personnel and all your doctors know you use this drug.This document does not contain all possible interactions. Therefore, before using this product, tell your doctor or pharmacist of all the products you use. Keep a list of all your medications with you, and share the list with your doctor and pharmacist

Cloning Essay -- essays research papers fc

Shortly after the announcement that British scientists had successfully cloned a sheep, Dolly, cloning humans has recently become a possibility that seems much more feasible in today's society. The word clone has been applied to cells as well as to organisms, so that a group of cells stemming from a single cell is also called a clone. Usually the members of a clone are identical in their inherited characteristics that is, in their genes except for any differences caused by mutation. Identical twins, for example, who originate by the division of a single fertilized egg, are members of a clone; whereas nonidentical twins, who derive from two separate fertilized eggs, are not clones. (Microsoft ® Encarta ® 97 Encyclopedia). There are two known ways that we can clone humans. The first way involves splitting an embryo into several halves and creating many new individuals from that embryo. The second method of cloning a human involves taking cells from an already existing human being a nd cloning them, in turn creating other individuals that are identical to that particular person. With these two methods at our desposal, we must ask ourselves two very important questions: Should we do this, and Can we? There is no doubt that many problems involving the technological and ethical sides of this issue will arise and will be virtually impossible to avoid, but the overall idea of cloning humans is one that we should accept as a possible reality for the future. Cloning humans is an idea that has always been thought of as something that could be found in science fiction novels, but never as a concept that society could actually experience. Today's technological speed has brought us to the piont to where almost anything is possible. Sarah B. Tegen, '97 MIT Biology Undergraduate President states, "I think the cloning of an entire mammal has shown me exactly how fast biology is moving ahead, I had no idea we were so close to this kind of accomplishment." Based on t he current science , though, most of these dreams and fears are premature, say some MIT biologists. Many biologist claim that true human cloning is something still far in the future. This raises ethical questions now as towhether or not human cloning should even be attempted. (http://www.usnews.com/usnews/issue/). There are many problems with cloning humans. One method of human cloning is splitting embryos... ...ill this experiment be used to create a new race of human clones? I personally think that human cloning to any extent will be at least problematic. I think nature will put up a good fight against mans feable intrusion into the creation business. As I have mentioned before in the movie The Boys from Brazil, man can only screw-up any attempt at creation. Just ask Dr. Frankenstein. Who knows what kind of mutations cloning would breed. Biologically would a clone evolve faster, slower? Would it affectively wipe out gene diversity making humans susectable to disease? Could a common cold be the new plauge? These are questions I hope we will never have to answer. Bibliography Works Cited "Clone," Microsoft ® Encarta ® 97 Encyclopedia.  © 1993-1996 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Macklin, Ruth. "Human cloning? Don't just say no" U.S. News and World Report. 3 March 1997 (4-26-98) Martin, Robert. "Creating a Soul by Cloning?" Applied Christian ity. 1998 (http://www.user.shentel.net/ramartin/applied/cloning.htm) (4-26-98) ROSS, SONYA "President ruling out federal research on human cloning" U.S. News and World Report. 3 March 1997 (4-27-98) Cloning Essay -- essays research papers fc Shortly after the announcement that British scientists had successfully cloned a sheep, Dolly, cloning humans has recently become a possibility that seems much more feasible in today's society. The word clone has been applied to cells as well as to organisms, so that a group of cells stemming from a single cell is also called a clone. Usually the members of a clone are identical in their inherited characteristics that is, in their genes except for any differences caused by mutation. Identical twins, for example, who originate by the division of a single fertilized egg, are members of a clone; whereas nonidentical twins, who derive from two separate fertilized eggs, are not clones. (Microsoft ® Encarta ® 97 Encyclopedia). There are two known ways that we can clone humans. The first way involves splitting an embryo into several halves and creating many new individuals from that embryo. The second method of cloning a human involves taking cells from an already existing human being a nd cloning them, in turn creating other individuals that are identical to that particular person. With these two methods at our desposal, we must ask ourselves two very important questions: Should we do this, and Can we? There is no doubt that many problems involving the technological and ethical sides of this issue will arise and will be virtually impossible to avoid, but the overall idea of cloning humans is one that we should accept as a possible reality for the future. Cloning humans is an idea that has always been thought of as something that could be found in science fiction novels, but never as a concept that society could actually experience. Today's technological speed has brought us to the piont to where almost anything is possible. Sarah B. Tegen, '97 MIT Biology Undergraduate President states, "I think the cloning of an entire mammal has shown me exactly how fast biology is moving ahead, I had no idea we were so close to this kind of accomplishment." Based on t he current science , though, most of these dreams and fears are premature, say some MIT biologists. Many biologist claim that true human cloning is something still far in the future. This raises ethical questions now as towhether or not human cloning should even be attempted. (http://www.usnews.com/usnews/issue/). There are many problems with cloning humans. One method of human cloning is splitting embryos... ...ill this experiment be used to create a new race of human clones? I personally think that human cloning to any extent will be at least problematic. I think nature will put up a good fight against mans feable intrusion into the creation business. As I have mentioned before in the movie The Boys from Brazil, man can only screw-up any attempt at creation. Just ask Dr. Frankenstein. Who knows what kind of mutations cloning would breed. Biologically would a clone evolve faster, slower? Would it affectively wipe out gene diversity making humans susectable to disease? Could a common cold be the new plauge? These are questions I hope we will never have to answer. Bibliography Works Cited "Clone," Microsoft ® Encarta ® 97 Encyclopedia.  © 1993-1996 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Macklin, Ruth. "Human cloning? Don't just say no" U.S. News and World Report. 3 March 1997 (4-26-98) Martin, Robert. "Creating a Soul by Cloning?" Applied Christian ity. 1998 (http://www.user.shentel.net/ramartin/applied/cloning.htm) (4-26-98) ROSS, SONYA "President ruling out federal research on human cloning" U.S. News and World Report. 3 March 1997 (4-27-98)

Student Loan Crisis

Student Loan Crisis Beginning in the 1960’s the distribution of federal and non-profit funds have given students all over the United States the opportunity to pursue post-secondary educations. Although this method has given students the ability to go to college financially, the majority of the students are not able to pay the money back when finished causing debt. Currently students in the United States owe more than $1 trillion dollars worth of federal and private student loans.Surprisingly this number has surpassed the country’s credit card debt which is $852 billion dollars. This years presidential election has many serious & interesting topics being discussed such as gay marriage & immigration, but the topic of student loan debt is of high importance and relates to the majority of the country. More specifically student loans are affecting African Americans more than any other race today. Due to the economic state of the country and their lack of knowledge on student loans the majority of African Americans are unable to repay their loans.Student loan debt is one of the biggest issues facing African Americans in the 2012 presidential election due to their limited knowledge on student loans, cost of college, and the economy of the United States. The lack of knowledge on student loans combined with the cost of college causes numerous burdens on young black individuals but at the same time affects the country as a whole. One factor that African Americans frequently ignore or are unaware of is their ability to pay back their loans on time.Sophia Kerby says, â€Å"Studies show that only 37 percent of students are able to repay their loans on time. † (Kerby 1). Black students are borrowing tremendous amounts of money not knowing if they have the ability to pay the money back on time. Student loans are also causing the increased rate of African American dropouts in the country. For example, Ann-Marie Adams explains, â€Å"that 69 percent of bla ck students listed debt loads as a key reason for dropping out of college†.The inability to pay and the realization that they will not be able to pay off their loans causes them to end their academic pursuits. This is astonishing because according to Adams 60% of jobs in America require a college education, and due to their enormous student loans they will not get that chance to receive a college education. In order for blacks to succeed and compete in corporate America they need to receive some form of post-secondary education. Not only is receiving an education important to the black community, but it is also important to the overall country as a whole.The country’s economy needs educated individuals coming into the workforce, and if students are not able to finish their education then the economy will suffer. Ann-Marie Adams says, â€Å"America cannot have a  vibrant democracy and a robust economy with an uneducated populace† (Adams 1). The cost of college u ltimately causes black students to never get the chance to receive a post-secondary education or place unnecessary burdens on their lives. Either way these young bright minds do not have a fair chance to contribute to the resurrection of this once dominant economy.The educating of aspiring black college students and their parents on the dangers off student loans is imperative, so these young individuals will have the opportunity to contribute to the nation’s economy. The high rate of unemployment doesn’t give the majority of African American graduates the ability to pay back their student loan debt causing lingering affects to the black community. According to Ann-Marie Adams, up to 80% of the blacks in the graduating class of 2010 graduated with some form of student loan debt (Adams 1).With this high rate of African Americans leaving school with debt there is a demand for employment, but there are not enough jobs for them to obtain. The margin of â€Å"African Americ an youth at 30 percent†¦compared to the white youth unemployment rate of 16 percent† shows that African American graduates have a distinct financial burden (Kerby 1). The youth unemployment rate for African Americans is almost doubled compared to the youth unemployment rate for white Americans. This makes it that much more harder for black Americans to find sources of repayment since white Americans are able to get jobs easier.According to Adams, the average African American graduates with roughly 30,000 dollars worth of student loan debt (Adams 1). As the younger generation of blacks leave college with student loan debt that they are unable to payback, their ability to become homeowners and their ability to increase their wealth has diminished. Charlene Crowell explains, â€Å"The domino effect of debt begins with a student loan and then delays the ability to qualify for a mortgage†¦the ability to gain wealth is limited if not stymied†. The domino effect is t he main reason he majority of the black community is unable to reach the middle class. A college graduate in debt and not having the ability to pay their loans off in time because no jobs are available is the scenario for many blacks causing them to experience poverty. Julie Margetta Morgan says, â€Å"With high unemployment and underemployment and so few options for dealing with debt, it should come as no surprise that the delinquency rate on student loans is so high† (Morgan). The below average economic state of the United States doesn’t give African Americans the ability to successfully pay their debt back on time.Student loans are not only a detriment to African Americans individually, but they are affecting the economy as well. Like preciously stated, student loan debt is preventing African Americans from finishing college and being able to be an educated contributor to the country’s workforce. There are many methods that can be used to help prevent and fix the crisis. For example, probably the simplest method but the most effective will be informing young African Americans and their parents about the dangers of student loans and the steps used in taking out a reasonable loan.For example: There was an approximate 16 percent increase and 12 percent increase among black and Hispanic students, respectively, that took out private loans, from the 2003 ­Ã¢â‚¬â€œ04 to 2007 ­Ã¢â‚¬â€œ08 school years. While federal loans have lower interest rates than private loans, doubling the rate will bring the two closer together, making students of color more vulnerable to defaulting on their loans (Kerby) This shows how simple information on the benefits of a federal loan over a private loan could have prevented these families from taking on private loans.Holding seminars and presentations for high school students & parents would increase their knowledge resulting in better judgment. Another way of helping the African American community with the stud ent loan crisis is consistently funding aid programs for the low-income students. Kerby states, â€Å"Students who will lose eligibility or be cut from the Pell Grant program†¦will likely turn to loans to make up the difference† (Kerby 1). If these programs are funded properly then this will decrease African American’s need for student loans and ultimately decreasing the average student loan debt post-graduation.These two solutions will of course not completely fix the crisis, but they will jumpstart the needed repairing. Student loans have been a part of this country’s history for roughly fifty years and it has not caused any problems until this recent decade. This topic should be of high importance in the presidential election because it affects every citizen in someway. Whether it’s a parent unable to send their child off to college financially or a college graduate living in their mother’s house with $20,000 worth of debt, it affects us al l.The country needs to hear the truth and the facts about this crisis because this debt will keep increasing unless the individuals at risk are informed. The fact that this is the number one form of debt in our country today surpassing credit card debt is shocking. Every student planning to go to college or parent sending their child off to college should know the basics of student loans because one small signature can ruin the rest of their lives. Works Cited Adams, Ann-Marie. â€Å"Student Debt in the Black Community: Hampering Our Ability to Enter the Middle Class. Washington Post. The Washington Post, 13 Nov. 2012. Web. 23 Nov. 2012. . Crowell, Charlene. â€Å"The Domino Effects of Debt: Student Loans Trigger Financial Stress from Students To Retirees. † The Domino Effects of Debt: Student Loans Trigger Financial Stress from Students To Retirees. N. p. , 24 Aug. 2012. Web. 26 Nov. 012. . Harkin, Tom. â€Å"The Debt Crisis In Higher Ed. † Time 180. 18 (2012): 44-51 . Print. Kerby, Sophia. â€Å"How Student Debt Impacts Students of Color. † Center for American Progress. N. p. , 26 Apr. 2012. Web. 26 Nov. 2012. . Morgan, Julie

How Votes Are Counted on Election Day

How Votes Are Counted on Election Day After the polls close on  Election Day, the task of counting the votes begins. Each city and state use a different method to collect and tabulate ballots. Some are electronic, others paper-based. But the process of counting votes is generally the same no matter where you live and vote. Preparations As soon as the last voter has voted, the election judge at each polling place makes sure poll workers have sealed all of the ballot boxes and then sends the sealed ballot boxes to a central vote-counting facility. This is usually a government office, like a city hall or county courthouse. If digital voting machines are used, the election judge will send the media on which the votes are recorded to the counting facility. The ballot boxes or computer media are usually transported to the counting facility by sworn law enforcement officers. At the central counting facility, certified observers representing the political parties or candidates watch the actual vote counting to make sure the count is fair. Paper Ballots In areas where paper ballots are still used, election officials manually read each ballot and add up the number of votes in each race. Sometimes two or more election officials read each ballot to ensure accuracy. Since these ballots are filled out manually, the voters intention can sometimes be unclear. In these cases, the election judge either decides how the voter intended to vote or declares that the ballot in question will not be counted. The most common problem with manual vote counting is, of course, human error. This can also be an issue with punch card ballots, as youll see. Punch Cards Where punch card ballots are used, election officials open each ballot box, manually count the number of ballots cast, and run the ballots through a mechanical punch card reader. Software in the card reader records the votes in each race and prints out totals. If the total number of ballot cards read by the card reader does not match the manual count, the election judge can order the ballots recounted. Problems can occur when the ballot cards stick together while being run through the card reader, the reader malfunctions, or the voter has damaged the ballot. In extreme cases, the election judge can order the ballots to be read manually. Punch card ballots and their infamous hanging chads led to the controversial vote count in Florida during the 2000 presidential election. Digital Ballots With the newer, fully computerized voting systems, including optical scan and direct recording electronic systems, the vote totals may be transmitted automatically to the central counting facility. In some cases, these devices record their votes on removable media, such as hard disks or cassettes, which are transported to the central counting facility for counting. According to the Pew Research Center, nearly half of all Americans use optical-scan voting systems, and about a quarter use direct-recording voting machines. Like any electronic device, these voting machines are vulnerable to hacking, at least in theory, experts say. But as of August 2017, there is little to no evidence suggesting that hacking has occurred. Recounts and Other Issues Whenever the results of an election are very close, or problems have occurred with the voting equipment, one or more of the candidates often demand a recount of the votes. Some state laws call for mandatory recounts in any close election. The recounts may be done by a manual hand-count of ballots or by the same type of machines used to make the original count. Recounts do sometimes change the outcome of an election. In almost all elections, some votes are lost or incorrectly counted due to voter mistakes, faulty voting equipment, or errors by election officials. From local elections to presidential elections, officials are constantly working to improve the voting process, with the goal of making sure that every vote is counted and counted correctly. Of course, there remains one absolutely certain way to make sure your vote will not be counted: dont vote. Effect of 2016 Russian Interference on Future Vote Counting Since Special Counsel Robert Mueller issued his â€Å"Report on the Investigation Into the Russia Interference in The 2016 Presidential Election† in March 2019, the U.S. House of Representative has passed legislation intended to reform the voting process and protect future elections. While the Senate Judiciary Committee has advanced two similar bipartisan bills on election security, they have yet to be debated by the full Senate. In addition, several states have announced plans to replace their current voting machines and computerized vote counting systems with more modern and hacker-proof equipment before the 2020 presidential election. According to a report by the Brennan Center for Justice, local election officials in 254 jurisdictions across 37 states plan to purchase new voting equipment in the â€Å"near future.† Election officials in 31 of the 37 states hope to replace their equipment before the 2020 election. In 2002, Congress enacted the Help America Vote Act (HAVA) allocating $380 million to help states strengthen their election security.

Organizational Culture Analysis Manager at Walmart

Organizational Culture Analysis Manager at Walmart Modern globalization has affected organizational culture greatly. Nowadays, people from different countries have an opportunity to work abroad. Of course, some specific difficulties may appear. It is essential to consider the organizational structure and culture before applying to the company position as there are several factors which may affect human behavior. Speaking about organizational culture it may be defined as follows.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Organizational Culture Analysis: Manager at Walmart specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Organizational culture is â€Å"the set of shared, taken-for-granted implicit assumptions that a group holds and that determines how it perceives, thinks about, and reacts to its various environments† (Kinicki, Kreitner, 2006). Employees’ behavior depends on the organizational culture. Working as a manager in Walmart, I noticed the importance of the issue. Observ able Artifacts Each organizational culture consists of the following layers, observable artifacts, espoused values, and enacted values. Observable artifacts are the visible aspects of the corporate culture which may be considered by everyone who wants to get to know more about the company (Kinicki, Kreitner, 2006). As for Walmart, people are able to check the corporate vales of the company at its website which states that Walmart cares for the services offered to the customers, respects each individual, and strives for excellence. Moreover, observable artifacts of the organizational culture are the stories of success of separate people and of the particular stores. Decorations, dress and even advertising are the observable artifacts of the company. Looking at the staff it is possible to understand that the company image is rather high, and the observable artifacts are on the level. Espoused Values Espoused values are the values which â€Å"are expressed on behalf of the organizati on or attributed to an organization by its senior managers in public statements† (Khandelwal, Mohendra, 2010) but they are distinct from the really practiced ones. One of the main purposes of such values is to create a specific image of the company, still, without the intention to realize the mentioned facilities in practice. There are may be a lot of reasons why companies refer to such strategies. Speaking about Walmart, I managed to notice the following espoused values which were not realized but which were substituted with the specific practices. Thus, declaring about the company customer obsession Walmart practiced communication skills as the substitution. The place of innovation and creativity was substituted with mere innovation which is a common practice in all organization. Declaring the desire to openness and learning, the top managers of the store stressed on hardworking. Enacted Values Enacted values, contrary to espoused vales, are the norms which are practiced in the corporation in reality. Thus, it does not matter how the company wants to look like and which norms it proclaims, the enacted values are specifically the issues the company peruses (Phillips, Gully, 2011).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Speaking about Walmart, the staff is to follow particular rules and norms of behavior, for example, the discipline is followed there greatly. The company has specific corporate traditions, such as celebration of the employee’s birthdays and particular attention to the customers who have chosen the store. Therefore, it should be concluded that each company has three layers of values which may be expressed in various forms and with peculiar power. Thus, some companies may have more enacted values (such as Walmart) and others may refer more to the espoused ones. Reference List Khandelwal, K. A., Mohendra, N. (2010). Espo used organizational values, vision, and corporate social responsibility: Does it Matter to organizational members? Vikalpa, 35(3), 19-37. Kinicki, A., Kreitner, R. (2006). Organizational Behavior: Key Concepts, Skills Best Practices, 4/e. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Phillips, J. M., Gully, S. M. (2011). Organizational Behavior: Tools for Success. Stamford: Cengage Learning.

Beowulf and J.R.R. Tolkiens Lord of the Rings Essay

Beowulf and J.R.R. Tolkiens Lord of the Rings - Essay Example However, a deeper study on the two texts also exposes further the similarities in the characters and central themes of the stories. For one, the stories do not just depict collective struggles between good and evil but also the more complicated battle within the self, the internal contradictions within an individual. This may even be the pattern that is the most common of both Beowulf and Lord of the Rings. Tolkien’s first book, evil is presented as an external force and it takes solid determination from the side of the hero to battle this through physical means. Frodo is presented as just an innocent Hobbit who does not have any innate tendency to do evil and who treats evil instead as an external enemy just like other characters in Middle Earth. For the reader, identifying good and evil has been made simple through such a presentation, one that formulates the concept that battling evil is easy because it is an enemy that can be seen and detached from the self. It became conv enient for one mark Gandalf as good and Sauron as evil in Lord of the Rings just Beowulf is and Grendel respectively in Beowulf. However, in the succeeding books in the Lord of the Rings trilogy, the Tolkien began to describe more the internal struggles within. The typical good hero is presented as not really safe from temptations or from the urge to do evil too. The same thing happened in Beowulf when the lead character also experienced the contradictions between good and evil from within. In Tolkien’s book, even the innocent Frodo undergoes the difficulties of dealing the evil side of him that emerged when a ring was in his hand. At this point, the effect of both literary works on the readers is essentially the same. The reader realizes that battling evil and standing up for good is not that simple because evil can also arise from within, from one person’s mind and heart. Apparently, there seems to be a common theme between Tolkien’s story and Beowulf. However , it could not be discerned if the latter’s author really had this in mind, considering that Lord of the Rings is a reflection of Tolkien’s interpretation of Beowulf. It could be said that Tolkien stole the central theme of Beowulf in order to enhance his own literary creation. However, one may question how he actually wrote about Gollum’s character quite close to that of Grendel in Beowulf. Grendel is Cain’s descendant and, therefore, originated from humans despite his powers and great evil. Even Beowulf, whose strength is also remarkable, comes from the human race and therefore shares a common lineage with Grendel. This is not much different from the case of Lord of the Rings antagonist, Gollum. Gollum actually comes from the Middle Earth, with a Hobbit bloodline, particularly those of the Stoors. Frodo Baggins share a similarity with Gollum in this respect because he is the typical Hobbit himself. These specific depictions of common bloodlines and orig ins of characters representing opposite sides in the battle between good and evil emphasize further the theme that the struggle is not always external but internal too; that no one is absolutely free from evil tendencies. In Tolkien’s story, Sauron may be the epitome of evil but it is Gollum who represents best the tendency of Frodo to commit evil. In order to win against the evil represented

Portfolio Project (350 Points) The Portfolio Project is due at the end Term Paper

Portfolio Project (350 Points) The Portfolio Project is due at the end of Module 8. Read the following description carefully. C - Term Paper Example Lastly, it reflects on how the digital aspects have influenced the rise of secular religions with its popularization. Metzger, M. J., & Flanagin, A. J. (2008). Digital media, youth, and credibility. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. This book portrays the way society has unlimited access to broad spectrums of information through extremely portable and easy to access digital forms as compared to the past. It expounds on the comfort brought by the availability of media tools as forms of entertainment and quality information providers. It also touches on the youth as possible audiences and implementers of the same. In addition, it emphasizes on the need by the youth to use the internet as a health information seeking to tool for their personal gain. Miller, R. (2008). Digital art: Painting with pixels. Minneapolis, MN: Twenty-First Century Books. In this book, the digital form of art is on the spotlight by giving the meaning of this art form then building up on its impact on culture. It diffe rentiates the digital way from the traditional form of artistry by presenting its historic background. Additionally, the book encompasses how technology in the digital world has evolved to give birth to sophisticated outputs in the advertising field. Lastly, it gives insights in to contemporary art and the influence that the tool has on cultural growth. Morgan D. (2008). Key Words in Religion, Media and Culture. Taylor & Francis: London. This book is an introduction to cultural interrelation between the digital media and religion. It gives the extent to which the media tool has affected important concepts within the religious walls. Morgan has incorporated a number of scholars in this book to bring out seasoned rationale revolving around inquisitions on the constitution of culture. it provides a basis in to which future generations may refer to when it comes to leads towards theological explanations in the future through the digital media. Finally, it gives insights in to the curios ity that has led to the inception of secular religions and idol worship as part of the digitally revolutionized culture. Ricardo, F. J. (2009). Cyberculture and new media. Amsterdam: Rodopi. In his book, Ricardo depicts the state of the exposure in which the youths have used the digital forms for their own selfish gains. It reflects how distant the youths have gone in terms of the basic concept of internet use. It highlights on the other ways in which the youths have conveniently applied the virtual concepts to promote moral decay and immoral creations. Ideally, it is a study guide that shows disconnect between self-ideologies and societal culture. Shelly, G. B., Cashman J.T., Gunter A. G., Gunter R.E. (2008). Teachers discovering computers: Integrating technology and digital media in the classroom. Boston, Mass: Thomson/Course Technology. The projections in this book explain the transformation of the educational sector concerning dynamic approaches of advanced learning. It covers o n digitized media concepts in relation to the advancement in technological forms of simplified learning. It also depicts the ease within which instructors find their carriers to be more fulfilling than that of past tutors because of the remarkable aspect of simplified learning. Straubhaar, J. D., LaRose, R., & Davenport, L. (2012). Media now: Understanding media, culture, and technology. Boston, MA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. This book