Students Guide

savant 14-16 Guide Contents A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Aims and objectives military control self-command Culture Direct selling Ethics Factors of Production dish up Higher grades Insolvency military control advertisement Kel lumberg and the cross focal point life cycle Logistics merchandising mix virgin product emergence Organisational functions Pre- conduct it awayd model Studies three-figure and qualitative foodstuff research enlisting Stakeholders Training Unseen grimace Studies imbibe entirely told the in style(p) www. tt100. plot Xchange ideas You ZZZZZZZzzzzz 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2For much cultivation enter on to www. tt100. plot/ disciples Listings Visit www. tt100. game for human face Studies on these affairs from the pursuance institutions. Aims and objectives Effective workplaces Aims, objectives and value Enterprising managers Ans falses matrix Ethical supply range of mountains bodied Social Responsibility Ethics Customer dish out Factors of Production growing advanced fires Inclusion For more(prenominal) information log on to www. tt100. secret plan/students 3 Listings Liability knowledgeership Market research PESTLE/SLEPT analytic thinking Meeting changing need Product portfolio Meeting customers ineluctably t one and just now(a) of voice MutualsRe-branding New product development Recruitment and endurance Organisational structures Recruitment, selection and reproduction 4 For more information log on to www. tt100. biz/students Listings Recruitment, selection and pedagogy Sustainability Re-positioning The gross sales function Roles of departments Total quality management sectionalisation and customer call for Training Stakeholders Training for growth Support for avocation Unions For more information log on to www. tt100. biz/students 5 A Aims and objectives Aims atomic modus operandi 18 the overall goals that a ta sk enterprise seeks to achieve. Aims back be downcast down into objectives.Usually, objectives argon more precise than aims. Beca use the incision for Education and Skills (DfES) and the Department of Health sponsor the National Healthy Schools Programme (NHSP), they ar obligated for shaping its aims and objectives. The Programmes get word aims atomic number 18 to 1. raise levels of acquirement across the school population 2. reduce health inequality 3. assist social inclusion. (Social inclusion is an approach that includes all members of a society quite an than excluding al take aimy disadvantaged individuals and groups. ) Ideally all aims and objectives should be SMART.Specific measurable Achievable Realistic (or germane(predicate)) Time related. pulsate word the website to see what this substance with a practical example The National Healthy Schools Programme. 6 To mark prohibited more well-nigh aims and objectives check go far to the fore www. tt100. biz/hda Business ownership B at that place be a number of different types of dividing line ownership Sole Traders atomic number 18 owned and controlled by one soul who is prudent for providing all the capital and running of the product line with unlimited liability. alliance two or more masses form a channel and share responsibility and costs. They as well have unlimited liability.Private modified Companies are owned by an individual or a clear number of people. unrestricted Limited Companies owned by shareholders provided the shares are open for eachone to buy on the stock exchange. Mutuals organisations where the owners are also their customers, nationally is a Mutual. This lends certain advantages. BUILDING SOCIETIES Members BANKS Shareholders Charge little to borrowers and pay more to savers Charge more to borrowers and pay slight to savers go along teetotum Ownership al bearings appears in examinations. work on genuine you know the advantages and disadvanta ges of the different types of ownership.In particular, youll need to remember what liability means. Liability means organism responsible for paying the comp boths debts. It ignore be limited when it is restricted to the amount invested or unlimited where all personal assets can be used to pay off a familys debts. To read this Case think over and more on Nationwide log on to www. tt100. biz/nationwide 7 C Culture Culture describes the regular way an organisation does things, including patterns of behaviour and relationships. Important aspects of culture at Coca-Cola colossal Britain are an emphasis on teamwork and em great baronment.This reflects the culture of The Coca-Cola Company as a whole. By creating a friendly, innovative culture, Coca-Cola Great Britain is able to depend on a high quality workforce. This jockstraps it to master(prenominal)tain brand leadership in Great Britain and in every a nonher(prenominal) market in which it solves. Top Fact The Coca-Cola Compa ny owns or licences nearly 400 brands in non-alcoholic beverages divine service consumers in over 200 countries. Coca-Cola, Coke and the design of the Coca-Cola Contour Bottle are registered trade marks of The Coca-Cola Company. 8 To aline step forward more slightly organisational structures huckster www. tt100. biz/culture Direct selling DThis is where an organisation deals direct with consumers in their firms or by phone or mail. Amway is one of the worlds largest direct sales companies. It works with around 3 million Independent Business Owners (IBOs) in more than 80 countries. IBOs are usually individuals running an enterprise selling level-headeds. These IBOs are the link surrounded by Amway and the final consumer. They are also Amways links with citizens and communities across the globe. As a direct selling accompany, they sell products directly to consumers and bypass the tralatitious high street. In the UK Amway distributes a potpourri of products Personal solici tude Skin Care & ColourCosmetics Durables Nutrition and Wellness enrolment Items Home Care Fragrances, body care and hair care products A range of skincare and colour cosmetics, Cookware and water treatment systems viands supplements, food and drinks Third party electrical goods Laundry, cleaning, and car care products For more incident on direct selling go to www. tt100. biz/amway 9 E Ethics Ethics are moral principles that affect the way in which an individual or a communication channel behaves. A ingenuous way of imagineing at ethics is to consider what is mighty and victimize and select the pay off option.Ethical companies do the right thing and precaution themselves with the long term. Research shows Vodafones strong position. Stakeholders perceptions of Vodafones CSR Performance competitor 1 Public 25% Opinion 10% formers Competitor 2 Public 29% The graph shows how Vodafone is perceived in comparison with new(prenominal) operators with regard to how seriously it ta kes its responsibilities to society and the environment. Groups of opinion formers and members of the public were askedHow seriously do you think company X takes its responsibilities to society and the environment? The percentages show the number Insert graph Pg 2 Col very of respondents replying 1 space-reflection symmetry 2 seriously or fairly seriously. Opinion 14% formers Competitor 3 Public 23% Opinion 5% formers Vodafone Public 27% Opinion 33% formers Testing quantify How can being ethical benefit an organisation like Vodafone? consider your service at www. tt100. biz/student For further bill of ethics go online to 10 www. tt100. biz/vodafone Factors of Production F Land, Labour, Capital and Enterprise are the factors of production. speak out you postulateed to start a business. What would you need?First, you would have to decide what products your business would offer. This decision would influence your view on what premises (or land) you needed, the kind of machinery inevitable and the type of labour to be employed. In addition, you would need to come up the capital (capital) to pay for setting up all these things. Above all, however, you would need organisational skills. In business terms an ability to organise, together Product Capital with a get outingness to take Land or Enterprise Labour risks in hobby of financial Service returns, is called enterprise.Some would consider enterprise to be the most(prenominal) important of the four factors of production, as poorly run businesses rarely exsert for long. Land Securities is a property company. One of its main activities is renting out the buildings it owns. Testing multiplication Factors of production is a regular question on examination text file. Log on to get a detailed explanation of each of the factors of production and how Land Securities combines them. To find out more or so factors of production check out www. tt100. biz/land_securities 11 G growthAs organisations grow and dev elop they may change their type of ownership to suit their circumstances. A business owner may start as a touch on trader. Funding may become a jam problem as the business grows and the restore trader needs, say, to buy untested equipment or to move to larger premises. In this case a sole trader may then decide to become a confidential limited company, which can raise additional money through a private share issue. A growing business needs capital, this qualification be raised through issue of parvenue shares (known as a new issue) retained profit overdraft bank loan employ purchase sale and leaseback.A growing business might go public and raise cash through a public issue of shares on the stock market, (a market on which stocks and shares are sold) known as a new issue. It is a good way for businesses to raise funds and grow. Investors can then purchase these shares and become shareholders. Investors can put money into manufacturing companies e. g. Cadbury Schweppes. They can also invest in investment trusts. These are companies whose only purpose is to invest in other companies. 12 For more detail on growth log on to www. tt100. biz/aitc Higher grades HHigher grades can be achieved by utilise examples from the Case Studies. Examiners real like it when you can relate class work to real organisations they put across you extra marks At www. tt100. biz you can find oodles of Case Studies showing how wellknown organisations actually implement the theory that you study. Its also very likely that you go out come across Case Studies in your exams. You lead be able to find practise exam papers and mark schemes to help you prepare for your exams on the website. If you cant find what you want straight away, use the site navigation to get to merely where you need to go.We have great Case Studies in a variety of formats to wager your own needs full 2000 word versions as those in the binder summaries 500 word versions Brief Cases 500 word vers ions with shorter sentences and less technical address. Youll also find Interactive Quizzes Test knowledge with these fun, interactive testzes covering the key topics at 14-16. Use them with the Case Studies or on their own as revision its up to you. Text allow scheme Save yourself time by checking out the theory whilst youre on the site. Company Information A nonher time-saving feature, this section has links to particularized pages relevant to curriculum topics. Glossary Check out what business words and phrases mean by using our glossary of terms. For more information log on to www. tt100. biz/students 13 I Insolvency Insolvency means a business cannot pay the bills/monies that it owes. Taking a risk means risking failure as well as success. A business may fail because it has not correctly assessed the risks it faces. Many businesses succeed but others fail, they become insolvent.This means they do not have enough assets (what they own) that they can turn into cash pro nto enough to pay their pressing liabilities (what they owe). By law, the owners of small enterprises, including all sole traders and most partnerships, have unlimited liability for the debts of the business. This means that if the business is insolvent the owners may have to sell the things they own (including their homes) to meet the liabilities of the business. Exam fart Liability appears frequently on most exam papers. There are plenty of examples and explanations on The propagation 100 website.To read this Case Study and more on the Insolvency Service visit 14 www. tt100. biz/insolvency_service Job advertisement The Legal Services Commission (LSC) requires talented people and needs to communicate this in its recruitment advertisements. They hand over compelling reasons why virtually(prenominal) talented people with an interest in the welfare of society verbal expression to work for the LSC in a range of roles. J Testing Times Where do you feel would be the best place for this advertisement to be located? Local shop Local report National newspaper Check your answer at www. tt100. biz/students To catch more on the Legal Services Commission go to ww. tt100. biz/legal_services 15 K Kellogg and the product life cycle The product life cycle is the stages that a product passes through from design and development to it being taken off the market. Initially the product will grow and flourish. However, as new competitors come into the market and as excitement about the product falls, then the product enters a new life cycle stage termed maturity. If the product is not handled carefully at this stage we may see saturation of the market and the onset of a decline in interest. Life Cycle gross revenue Maturity Decline Growth Introduction Time Testing TimesAt which point in the product life cycle is advertizement and promotion likely to be largest? Check your answer at www. tt100. biz/students 16 For further explanation of the product life cycle go online to www. tt100. biz/kelloggs Logistics L Logistics is another name for distribution. This involves moving keen materials to manufacturers and accurate products to shops. Wincanton plc specialises in designing, implementing and operating solutions to customers supply problems. It can also manage all aspects of auction pitch and storage of goods for other firms. This is known as supply chain management.The companys activities include moving bulk raw materials organising the movement of supplies to companies managing the movement of finished goods to customers managing warehouse facilities. Top Fact dispersal accounts for 20% (on average) of the final costs of goods to customers. For more details on logistics visit www. tt100. biz/wincanton 17 M Marketing mix Argos befools sure that it meets the needs of its customers. Marketing involves understanding who the customers are and what they want through internal entropy sources such(prenominal) as sales figures and through consumer r esearch MarketingThe right products In the right place At the right price With the right promotional activities Top Fact About 80% of Argos customers have already decided what they want to buy before visiting the store or website. Testing Times What methods can a company use to bugger off sure it gets all these things right and reduces the risk of getting them wrong? Check your answer at www. tt100. biz/students 18 To find out more about the marketing mix check out www. tt100. biz/argos New product development N The process of bringing a new product to the market, normally based on research and development to meet the needs of customers.It is vital that large companies use their research and development capabilities to bring to the market new, alternative forms of fuel and energy, whilst at the uniform time modifying breathing fuels derived from crude oil to make them more ecologically efficient in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Shell has pioneered the development of some(prenominal) new fuels e. g. hydrogen filling stations in Iceland, USA and The Netherlands. These fuel sources use water and renewable electricity to provide hydrogen to power cars. This hydrogen is salve from carbon. Fuel cell engines running on hydrogen could make vehicle transport genuinely sustainable.Hydrogen can be made locally and water is the only direct emission. Carbon emissions can be zero if the hydrogen is produced by using renewable power to electrolyse water. Shell Hydrogen is building a commercial business to attempt tapping this potential. To read this Case Study and more on Shell go to www. tt100. biz/shell 19 O Organisational functions Organisations arrange their employees into different departments and areas. Cummins main activities is manufacturing engines and generators. Its departments are Manufacturing Making engines to the highest possible quality and reducing waste and inefficiency.Roles inside manufacturing include people working on the factory sh op root word as machine operators and as technicians. Administration Ensuring the smooth operation of the manufacturing process by offering appropriate administrative assert. Engineering Designing engines etc and development the prototypes to their full potential. Sales and marketing Discovering customers needs and wants. Finding and developing sales opportunities for the companys products. Human resources Recruiting, selecting and training staff to meet customers needs. get and Logistics Ensuring that components arrive just-in-time (just before they are required for the next step in the process) and that finished goods are shipped around the world quickly and cost effectively. There are Case Studies about Cummins on the website. Log on and go steady at different areas of the business. 20 To find out more on organisational functions visit www. tt100. biz/cummins Pre-issued Case Studies P Some exams have pre-issued Case Studies ask your teacher whether there will be an y in your exam. A good way to get a feel for a pre-issued Case Study is to carry a SWOT analysis.This should let you crash out the main elements and possible problems/solutions that the organisation is facing. Remember Strengths and Weaknesses are internal, Opportunities and Threats are external. You should be able to identify the main topics from the specification you are following. Make sure you fully understand these topics by logging on to www. tt100. biz and using the topic navigation to go directly to a Case Study which covers that area. This will make sure you fully understand the topic and, importantly, can apply it in an exam situation. Youll find lots of execute exams with answers at www. t100. biz. Practise answering these papers which are written in the same style as your real papers. This is excellent preparation. STUDENT GUIDES Check out our student guides with hints on levels of response, preparing for exams, an A-Z of help including topic summaries, definitions and much more. synergetic QUIZZES Test your knowledge with our interactive quizzes, check your results and try again to get them all right Access specifications and practice papers through www. tt100. biz/students 21 Q Quantitative & Qualitative market research Quantitative selective information is information that can be measured.Questions with yes/no answers known as disagreeable questions are used. Qualitative data is all about peoples feelings and opinions. It is often obtained through open questions (i. e. What do you like about it? ). 1. Quantitative research. This involves collecting information from an appropriate sample of shoppers to find out what their views are of Homebase and the customer service that it offers. An important source is a postal check over which Homebase conducts amongst a sample of Spend & Save commitment card holders. This is do three times a year to gauge satisfaction with, and loyalty to, Homebase.The survey allows Homebase to monitor satisfacti on over time and highlight any areas that may be causing customers problems. Homebase is then able to analyse the relative frequency of problems relating to specific areas such as customer service, layout of stores, product range and delivery service. 2. Qualitative research typically involves smaller scale research about values and views rather than hard facts. For example, qualitative research involves interviewing small groups of customers to find out what their views are of customer service at Homebase. Exam Tip Questions often refer to sources of data.Make sure you know a hardly a(prenominal) such as questionnaire interviews web polls government sources. Also make sure you know the difference between primary and secondary research. particular research is carried out by the firm itself. Secondary research is data a company finds that has been forefathere by someone else. To read this Case Study and more on Homebase go to 22 www. tt100. biz/homebase Recruitment R This is the process from where an organisation decides it has a position vacant and needs to employ someone, to the point where application forms are submitted for the vacancy. Selection is the next step.Audi provides a comprehensive recruitment service to all Audi Centres, which includes role profiles, pay advice, recruitment advertising, interview guidelines and assessment centres for selection. Audi provides job descriptions for all roles including Apprentice and Audi Technician, based on researching the activities that high quality employees will be expected to perform. Testing Times What is the difference between a Job Description and Personnel precondition? Check your answer at www. tt100. biz/students For more detail on recruitment log onto www. tt100. biz/audi 23 SStakeholders A stakeholder is any individual or group that is affected in some way by a companys activities. The following identifies some of the stakeholders in Cadbury Schweppes Stakeholder grouping Interest in the comp any Shareholders Owners of shares in the company. These are expression for sustainable, healthy dividend payments primarily large institutions but also include a large and a rising share price. number of individual shareholders. Consumers Millions of people worldwide who buy and/or Wanting to buy treats or refreshments that provide consume Cadbury Schweppes products. hem with quality,taste and value. They also want to enjoy their favourite brands as well as exciting new products. Employees People who work for the company, Cadbury look to the company to offer good terms and Schweppes has over 50,000 employees around the conditions of employment, a healthy and safe world. working environment and opportunities for personal and professional development. auberge Organisations the company works with that have an interest in the communities in which the company operates, such as local governments, international agencies, non-governmental organisations and trade unions.Wanting the compan y to act responsibly and respect the communities in which it operates. For example, assisting and supporting communities, respecting the environment, trading ethically and respecting human rights. Testing Times Customers and suppliers are also groups of stakeholders. What do they do? What do they want? Write your answer down and check it at www. tt100. biz/students To read this Case Study and more on Cadbury Schweppes log on to 24 www. tt100. biz/cadbury Training T Training is the development of skills and knowledge to allow employees to carry out their roles more efficiently.Mc take upalds training involves a number of stages. The first is at the Welcome Meetings. These set out the companys standards and expectations. This is followed by a structured development syllabus that provides training in all areas of business. Crew trainers work shoulder-to-shoulder with trainees speckle they learn the operations skills necessary for running each of the 11 workstations in each restauran t, from the front counter to the grill area. All employees learn to operate stateof-the-art foodservice equipment, gaining knowledge of McDonalds operational procedures.The majority of training is floor based, or on-the-job training because people learn more and are more likely to retain information if they are able to practise as they learn. All new employees have an initial training period. Here they are shown the basics and allowed to develop their skills to a level where they are competent in each area within the restaurant. The timescale for this depends on their status i. e. full or part-time. They will also attend classroom-based training sessions where they will complete workbooks for quality, service and cleanliness.Testing Times Can you think of three different types of training? For more information log on to www. tt100. biz/mcdonalds 25 U Unseen Case Studies You are not expected to develop a great deal of data analysis due to the time constraints look for general trends in data. Has it got better or worse? Place a + or a sign to help you when you look back. Ensure you use the actual figures given and not vague descriptions such as its bigger. You will get more marks is you say the data shows an increase of 10%. Try to look for themes within the case.What styles of management or communication can you see? Try to link these to the theory you have been taught and the specification you are following. The Times 100 has created a number of practice examinations to help you prepare for your final exam. Log on and transfer a practice paper then check how you would have done by accessing the mark scheme online. You can access all specifications through the website using the search by exam instructions. 26 For more information log on to www. tt100. biz/students View V View all the latest Case Study and exam information at www. t100. biz. You can download all the Case Studies and view them in different sizes depending on what you want full size summary Brief Case. Make sure you uphold checking back on the site as it will be updated with new material to support your lessons in class and help you prepare for examinations. No matter what Business Studies course you are taking you will find all the information you need at www. tt100. biz. All the information can be downloaded which lets you design and build up an excellent set of notes for yourself to help you revise key topic areas. interpreting how real businesses deal with the same topics you are covering in school or at home will develop your understanding and appreciation. For more information log on to www. tt100. biz/students 27 W www. tt100. biz www. tt100. biz for all your business studies needs. Differentiated to suit all needs and abilities and available online. Case Studies are available at three levels full 2000 word versions as those in the binder summaries 500 word versions Brief Cases 500 word versions with shorter sentences and less technical words.Interactive Quizzes Test knowledge with these fun, interactive quizzes covering the key topics at two levels, 14-16 and 16-18. Use them with the Case Studies or on their own as revision its up to you. Text Book Theory Save yourself time by checking out the theory whilst youre on the site. Company Information Another time-saving feature, this section has links to specific pages relevant to curriculum topics. Glossary Check out what business words and phrases means by using our glossary of terms. STUDENT GUIDES Check out our student guides with hints 8 For more information log on to www. tt100. biz/students Xchange of ideas X Xchange ideas with your friends about topic areas. Youll probably find that your friends are in truth good at some of the areas you have problems with and that youll be able to help them in areas they are not so good in. Test each other with quick fire definitions and glossary of terms, all of which can be plant on the website. Examiners like to see students using the ri ght terms to support their work, which means they hand out a lot of marks for these areas.Dont miss out on picking up some easy marks. Why not challenge one of your friends to an online quiz? See who really does know the most about a particular topic, and if you dont do so well, practice so that next time youll come out on top both in the quiz and in class. For more information log on to www. tt100. biz/students 29 Y You You need to ensure that you are fully prepared for your examination. onetime(prenominal) papers are excellent practice. You can get most of them free from the examination board website with answers. You can access these from the links on www. tt100. biz. reasonable reading theory and business books will help to a point, but seeing how it really works will stick in your recollection much better. The Times 100 Case Studies are written and intentional to help you see how theory works in the real business world. Start making your own revision guides up. Pick out th e separate from the Case Studies which interest and stimulate you. Mind mapping topics is a really good way to remember key areas. Look at the following you can develop this as far as you need to. A Case Study like Arcadia will help you. Autocratic pop Characteristics Management StylesTheory Paternalistic Type of organisation 30 For more information log on to www. tt100. biz/students ZZZZZZZZZzzzzzzzzz Z Make sure you get plenty of rest before your exams. This means dont leave the revision too late and try and cram it all in the night before. Research shows that little and often means you learn and remember more. Make sure you plan your time. Draw up a revision timetable which also builds in time for when you are not studying. play and fresh air are equally important and keep will your body in shape as The Times 100 will keep your mind in shape.Starting revision early will ensure you dont put yourself under excessive twitch and will allow you to identify topic areas that you are weak on or find difficult to understand. By identifying and tackling them early on you wint be worrying about them. Dont inter you can always ask your teacher for advice and guidance. Remember simple things such as keeping yourself hydrated can make a wide difference. So drink plenty of water www. tt100. biz For more information log on to www. tt100. biz/students 31 Something new for Edition 10At the bottom of our web pages you will find a magnifying glass. behind(predicate) some of the magnifying glasses there is a hidden letter. Collect the earn and re-arrange them to spell a well-known business studies term. Once you have registered your answer on our competition page, you will be asked a simple question, affiliated to the term. This will ensure your entry into our competition prize draw, where one gold winner will receive vouchers for the High Street store of their choice. Go to www. tt100. biz and start searching today. Good luck

Biology Revision

Majeed Thaika Year 10-11 Contents 1 Cells pg-05 -Animal and coiffe boothph unmatcheds (pg-05) -Specialised cubicles (pg-06) -dissemination (pg-07) -osmosis (pg-08) 2 rigs . pg-09 -photosynthesis (pg-09) -Factors affecting photosynthesis (pg-10) -Plants and minerals (pg-11) 3 Food Chains and Cycles pg-12 -Food cosmic string (pg-12) -Energy undersurfacealize (pg-13) -Pyramids of biomass (pg-15) -efficiency of nourishment exertion (pg-15) -calculating postal code efficiency (pg-16) Shorter aliment durance (pg-16) b d farm in the emit b extinguish (pg-17) 4Enzymes and Digestion pg-18 -What ar enzymes? (Pg-18) -Temperature and enzymes (Pg-18) -Ph and enzymes (Pg-19) -enzymes and internal internal ventilating system (Pg-20) -digestive system (Pg-20) -Enzymes and digestion (Pg-21) - new(prenominal) mental objects in digestion (Pg-22) -Enzymes in assiduity (Pg-23) 5Homeostasis pg-24 -Removing waste products (Pg-24) -Controlling pipeline glucose (Pg-25) -Diabetes (Pg- 25) -Temperature ruler (Pg-26) Temperature regulation Higher (Pg-26) 6Horm angiotensin converting enzymes pg-27 -Horm hotshots and secretors (pg-28) horm unmatchables in the menstrual cycle (pg-29) -Controlling fecundity (pg-31) 7The Nervous System pg-31 -receptors and effecters (pg-31) -Neur adepts (pg-33) - instinctive reflex action (pg-34) 8Def depoting against contagious infirmity pg-35 -pathogens- bacteria (pg-35) -pathogens-virus (pg-36) -white derivation kiosks (pg-36) -to a greater extent ab erupt white prodigal booths (pg-37) -vaccination (pg-38) -antibiotics (pg-38) 9 fodder and Exercise pg-40 -nutrients (pg-40) -metabolous reckon(pg-41) -the right oculus of nutrition (pg-41) -cholesterol(pg-42) -salt (pg-43) 10Adaptation pg-43 -Adaptation- rimed climates (pg-43) -Adaptation-hot climates (pg-44) 11Characteristics and Classification pg-45 -ge en coruscationenic engineering (pg-45) - withdrawive funding (pg-45) -changing the characteristics of a species (pg -46) - compartmentalisation (pg-47) -difficulties with fellowshipification (pg-48) 12The Heart pg-49 -the circulative system (pg-49) -arteries and veins (pg-50) -the message (pg-50) -ca exercises of meat affection (pg-51) 13Extra pg-51 - hinge upon hormones (pg-51) compe knockerion (pg-52) -The nitrogen cycle -the pee cycle Cells All wolfs and founds be made of cells. Animal cells and engraft cells harbor features in common, such(prenominal) as a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria and ribo roughly(a)s. Plant cells as good as suck up a cell wall, and a good deal stir chloroplasts and a permanent vacuole. contrast that cells may be specialized to lease verboten a particular function. Dissolved substances pass into and out of cells by diffusion. wet passes into and out of cells by osmosis. Animal and be cells Function of cells which animal and lay out cells ready in common- Part Function ucleus chooses hereditary material, which controls the act ivities of the cell cytoplasm most(prenominal) chemical substance a exclusivelyes take place hither, controlled by enzymes cell membrane controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell mitochondria most dynamism is vent-holed by respiration here ribo nighs protein synthesis happens here Extra part of plant cells- Part Function cell wall strengthens the cell chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, which dumps turn outly power for photosynthesis permanent vacuole take uped with cell sap to help glide by the cellturgidDiagram Generalized animal and plant cell Specialised cells Cells may be specialized for a particular function. Their social social organization deport digest them to carry this function out. Here ar some manikins Examples of the functions of cells- Cell Function Adaption Leaf cell Absorbs e in that locational power for photosynthesis jam-packed with chloroplasts. Regular shaped, scraggyly packed cells public figure a continuous bed for effici ent absorption of sunlight. Root h tune cell Absorbs piddle and mineral ions from the crud Long finger- homogeneous process with in truth handsome wall, which gives a king-sized surface ara. Sperm cell Fertilizes an egg cell fe anthropoid gamete The subject contains genetic nurture and an enzyme to help penet put the egg cell membrane. The nerve center section is packed with mitochondria for free animation. The tail moves the spermatozoon to the egg. Red demarcation cells double back haemoglobin to carry group O to the cells. Thin outer membrane to let oxygen diffuse by means of easily. Shape outgrowths the surface ara to admit more(prenominal) oxygen to be captive efficiently. No nucleus, so the unanimous cell is full of haemoglobin. Diffusion Dissolved substances frig around under ones skin to pass by the cell membrane to kick the bucket into or out of a cell.Diffusion is one of the processes that allow this to happen. Diffusion excretes when part icles spread. They move from a region where they atomic number 18 in richly tightness to a region where they argon in low constriction. Diffusion happens when the particles ar free to move. This is real in gases and for particles dissolved in origins. Particles diffuse down a immersion gradient, from an ara of risque dumbness to an argona of low do utilise. This is how the smell of cooking travels around the house from the kitchen, for example. Examples of diffusion Location Particles move From ToGut digested regimen products gut cavity squanderer in capillary of villus Lungs oxygen alveolar phone line post seam circulating around the lungs Two examples of diffusion down concentration gradients- Remember, particles c all e reallyplace up to move from a graduate(prenominal) to a low concentration darn at that place is aconcentration gradient. In the lungs, the product line provide spread over to take in oxygen from the alveolar air plazas gived the concent-r ation of oxygen on that point is greater than in the note. Oxygen diffuses across the alveolar walls into the line, and the circulation takes the oxygen-rich ancestry aside. OsmosisWater heap move across cell membranes because of osmosis. For osmosis to happen you enquire * two solutions with variant concentrations * a partially semipermecapable membrane to separate them Partially permeable membranes let some substances pass finished them, but non others. The support shows an example of osmosis. Osmosis is the movement of pee from a slight voiceless solution to a more concentrated solution through a partially perm-eable membrane. The picture above shows how osmosis civilizes. heretoforetually the level on the more concentrated side of the membrane rises, age the one on the less concentrated side falls.When the concentration is the same on both sides of the membrane, the movement of peeing molecules will be the same in both directions. At this point, the net ex reassign of pissing is zero and on that point is no further change in the liquid levels. Osmosis is heavy to plants. They gain pee by osmosis through their roots. Water moves into plant cells by osmosis, making themturgidor slicked so they that able to hold the plant upright. Plants Green plants sorb light energy using chlorophyll in their leaves. They use it to contradict cytosine paper dioxide with water to make a sugar called glucose.The glucose is utilize in respiration, or converted into starch and stored. Oxygen is get outd as a by-product. This process is called photosynthesis. Temperature, coulomb dioxide concentration and light intensity argon factors that hatful limit the rate of photosynthesis. Plants in ilk manner need mineral ions, including nitrate and magnesium, for healthy growth. They pose from piteous growth in conditions where mineral ions be wanting(p). Photosynthesis Photosynthesisis the chemical change which happens in the leaves of green pla nts. It is the freshman step towards making forage not that for plants but ultimately every animal on the planet.During this solution, coke dioxideand water ar converted into glucose and oxygen. The reaction requireslight energy, which is absorbed by a green substance called chlorophyll. Cross-section through a leaf cell Photosynthesis takes place in leaf cells. These contain chloroplasts, which argon tiny objects containing chlorophyll. The comparison for photosynthesis is- Plants absorb water through their roots, and deoxycytidine monophosphate dioxide through their leaves. round glucose is utilize for respiration, dapple some is converted into insoluble starchfor storage. The stored starch dope later be wriggleed back into glucose and employ in respiration.Oxygen is pushd as a by-product of photosynthesis. Factors undertakeing photosynthesis Three factors prat limit the hie of photosynthesis light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature. Lig ht intensity -Without comme il faut light, a plant force outnot photosynthesise very quickly, correct if there is plenty of water and carbon dioxide. -Increasing the light intensity will boost the speed of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide concentration whatever generation photosynthesis is limited by the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air. Even if there is plenty of light, a plant endurenot photosynthesise if there is insuff-icient carbon dioxide.Temperature -If it gets also cold, the rate of photosynthesis will decrease. Plants earth-closetnot photosynthesise if it gets pointlessively hot. -If you plot the rate of photosynthesis against the levels of these trio limiting factors, you get charts like the ones above. -In practice, any one of these factors could limit the rate of photosynthesis. maximizing growth Farmers push aside use their knowledge of these limiting factors to increase raiment growth in greenhouses. They may use artificial light so that photosynth esis stop continue beyond daylight hours, or in a taller-than-normal light intensity.The use of paraffin lamps indoors a greenhouse increases the rate of photosynthesis because the burning paraffin produces carbon dioxide and heat too. Plants and minerals Plants need to take in a number of elements to stay a run short. The most important be * carbon * hydrogen * oxygen Plants get hydrogen and oxygen from water in the soil, and carbon and oxygen from carbon dioxide and oxygen in the asynchronous transfer mode. Water and carbon dioxide atomic number 18 employ to synthesise intellectual nourishment during photosynthesis. Oxygen is apply to disengage energy from food during respiration. In addition to these three elements, plants need a number of minerals for healthy growth.These be absorbed through the roots as mineral ions dissolved in the soil water. Two important mineral ions need by plants are * Nitrate for making amino group acids, which are need to make proteins * Magnesium for making chlorophyll If a plant does not get passable minerals, its growth will be poor. It will survive from deficiency symptoms * deficient in nitrate it will suffer from stunted growth * deficient in magnesium its leaves will turn yellow The tomato plant on the left is healthy the one on the right is growing in conditions where mineral ions are deficient Food Chains and CyclesFood chains show the feeding relationships amid supporting things. Pyramids of biomass reveal the mass of brisk material at separately phase angle in a chain. The come up of material and energy decreases from one horizontal surface to the near. Food arrive atment is more efficient if the food chain is short, or if energy losses from animals are stifled. The carbon cycle shows how carbon moves from the atmosphere, through various animals and plants, then back to the atmosphere again. Food chains Afood chainshows what eats what in a particular habitat. For example, spy seed is eate n by a vole, which is eaten by a barn owl.The arrows between each item in the chain al slip representation point in the direction of energy emanate in other linguistic communication, from the food to the feeder. The lie is the ultimate source of energy for most communities of lively things. Green plants absorb some of the Suns light energy to make their own food by photosynthesis. The other reed organisms in a food chain are consumers, because they all get their energy and biomass by consuming consume other organisms. It helps if you arouse recall the meaning of some common words apply with food chains. Common words utilise with food chains and their meaning Word MeaningProducers Green plants they make food by photosynthesis. Primary consumers Usually eat plant material they are herbivores. For example rabbits, caterpillars, cows and sheep. Secondary consumers Usually eat animal material they are carnivores. For example cats, dogs and lions. Predators Kill for food . They are either secondary or ordinal consumers Prey The animals that predators feed on. Scavengers hunt down on unfounded animals. For example, crows, vultures and hyenas are scavengers. Decomposers Feed on dead and decaying organisms, and on the undigested parts of plant and animal matter in faeces. Energy transfer Energy is transferred along food chains from one stage to the conterminous. But not all of the energy available to organisms at one stage skunk be absorbed by organisms at the side by side(p) one. The amount of available energy decreases from one stage to the next. nearly of the available energy goes into growth and the output of subject. This energy becomes available to the next stage, but most of the available energy is employ up in other ship musical mode * energy released by respiration is use for movement and other life processes, and is eventually scattered as heat to the contacts energy is preoccupied in waste materials, such as faeces All of the energy use in these bureaus return keys to the environment, and is not available to the next stage. The animation shows how the level of available energy goes down as it is transferred through a temperate forest food chain. Most food chains are pretty short. thither are rarely more than four stages, because a lot of energy is lost at each stage. Pyramids of biomass Biomassmeans the mass of living material at a stage in a food chain. The biomass goes down as you go from one stage to the next, just like the amount of energy.A gain of biomassis a chart, drawn to scale, showing the biomass at each stage in a food chain. The bars become narrower as you reach the top. This benefit of biomass is for the food chain Oak tree caterpillar blue tit sparrowhawk Note that you do not need to draw the organisms. But you essential draw your pyramid of biomass to scale. each(prenominal) bar should be labelled with the bring in of the organism. Efficiency of food production The efficiency o f food production tin can be improved by reducing the amount of energy lost to the surroundings. This can be done by * preventing animals moving around too more makeing their surroundings warm Mammals and birds maintain a uninterrupted form temperature using energy released by respiration. As a result, their energy losses are luxuriously. Keeping pigs and chickens in warm sheds with little space to move around allows more efficient food production. But this raises object lesson concerns about the lives of such animals. In reality, a balance must be reached between the needs of farmers and consumers and the welfare of the animals. Calculating energy efficiency This hint has eaten 100 kJ of stored energy in the form of grass, and excreted 63 kJ in the form of faeces, urine and gas.The energy stored in its carcass tissues is 4 kJ. So how some(prenominal) has been used up in respiration? The energy released by respiration = 100 63 4 = 33 kJ Only 4 kJ of the passe-partout e nergy available to the bullock is available to the next stage, which might be military man. The efficiency of this energy transfer is Efficiency = 4/100 x 100 = 4% Shorter food chains Food production is more efficient if the food chain is short, because a higher percentage of energy is available to us. The carbon cycle All cells whether animal, plant or bacteria containcarbon, because they all contain proteins, fats and carbohydrates.Plant cell walls, for example, are made of cellulose a carbohydrate. Carbon is passed from the atmosphere, as carbon dioxide, to living things, passed from one organism to the next in complex molecules, and returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide again. This is known as the carbon cycle. Removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere Green plants remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere byphotosynthesis. The carbon becomes part of complex molecules such as proteins, fats and carbohydrates in the plants. Returning carbon dioxide to the atmosphere Organisms return carbon dioxide to the atmosphere byrespiration.It is not just animals that respire. Plants and microorganisms do, too. Passing carbon from one organism to the next When an animal eats a plant, carbon from the plant becomes part of the fats and proteins in the animal. Microorganisms and some animals feed on waste material from animals, and the dust of dead animals and plants. The carbon then becomes part of these microorganisms and detritus feeders. Materials from living things decay because they are digested by microorganisms. This process happens faster in warm, moist conditions with plenty of oxygen. descent can be very slow in cold, dry conditions, and when here is a shortage of oxygen. Enzymes and digestion Enzymes are biologic catalysts. There are optimal temperatures andpH values at which their activity is greatest. Enzymes are also proteins, and usually denatured above about 45? C. Enzymes are important in respiration. Aerobic respiration releases energy from glucose. What are enzymes? Enzymes are biological catalysts catalysts are substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without macrocosm used up. Enzymes are alsoproteinsthat are folded into complex shapes that allow undersizeer molecules to fit into them.The place where these substratemolecules fit is called the spry site. The pictures show how this works. In this example, two elflike molecules conglutination together to make a vauntinglyr one. If the shape of the enzyme changes, its active site may no longer work. We introduce the enzyme has beendenatured. They can be denatured by high temperatures or extremes ofpH. Note that it is wrong to say the enzyme has been killed. Although enzymes are made by living things, they are proteins, and not alive. Temperature and enzymes As the temperature increases, so does the rate of reaction. But very high temperatures denature enzymes.The graph shows the typical change in an enzymes activity with increasing temperatur e. The enzyme activity little by little increases with temperature until around 37? C, or personify temperature. Then, as the temperature continues to rise, the rate of reaction falls rapidly, as heat energy denatures the enzyme. Temper-ature and enzyme activity PH and enzymes Changes in pH alter an enzymes shape. diverse enzymes work best at polar pH values. The optimum pH for an enzyme depends on where it normally works. For example, intestinal enzymes pay off an optimum pH of about 7. 5. Enzymes in the stomach move over an optimum pH of about 2. H and enzyme activity Enzymes and respiration Enzymes in cells catalyse photosynthesis, protein synthesis joining amino acids together, and aerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration Respiration is not the same thing as breathing. That is more in good order called ventilation. Instead, respiration is a chemical process in which energy is released from food substances, such as glucose a sugar. Aerobicrespiration needs oxygen to work . Most of the chemical reactions overwhelmd in the process happen in tiny objects inside the cell cytoplasm, called mitochondria. This is the equation for aerobic respirationGlucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water (+ energy) The energy released by respiration is used to make massive molecules from bantamer ones. In plants, for example, sugars, nitrates and other nutrients are converted into amino acids. Amino acids can then join together to make proteins. The energy is also used * to allow vims to contract in animals * to maintain a constant organic structure temperature in birds and mammals Enzymes are important in digestion. Digestion is the disruption of carbohydrates, proteins and fats into gauzy soluble substances that can be absorbed into the tide rip.Lipases and proteases are used in biological detergents, and enzymes are used in the manufacture of food and drink. The digestive system Digestion is the breakdown of large molecules into little, soluble molecules that c an be absorbed into the body. Digestion happens inside the gut, and relies on enzymes. This diagram will show you of the main parts of the gut Enzymes and digestion The enzymes involved in respiration, photosynthesis and protein synthesis work inside cells. Other enzymes are produced by specialised cells and released from them the digestive enzymes are like this. They pass out into he gut, where they catalyse the breakdown of food molecules. Different enzymes Different enzymes catalyse distinct digestion reactions. Enzymes and their reactions catalysed enzyme reaction catalysed amylase starch sugars protease proteins amino acids lipase lipids fatty acids + glycerol Amylase is an example of a carbohydrase. Lipids are fats and oils. Different parts of the gut Different parts of the gut produce different enzymes. Where enzymes are produced enzyme where produced amylase salivary glands, pancreas, low-down gut protease stomach, pancreas, small intestine ipase pancreas, small intest ine Summary Overall, this means that * Amylase catalyses the breakdown of starch into sugars in the mouth and small intestine. * Proteases catalyse the breakdown of proteins into amino acids in the stomach and small intestine. * Lipases catalyse the breakdown of fats and oils into fatty acids and glycerol in the small intestine. Other substances in digestion You should recall that different enzymes work best at different pH values. The digestive enzymes are a good example of this. Enzymes in the stomach The stomach produceshydrochloric acid.This helps to begin digestion, and it kills more harmful microorganisms that might render been swallowed along with the food. The enzymes in the stomach work best inacidulentconditions in other words, at a low pH. Enzymes in the small intestine After the stomach, food travels to the small intestine. The enzymes in the small intestine work best inalka-lineconditions, but the food is acidic after(prenominal) being in the stomach. A substance ca lledbileneutralises the acid to provide the alkaline conditions take in the small intestine. Bile and enzyme production in the liver and pancreas Enzymes in industry Enzyme namesThe names of the different signs of enzymes usually end in the letters-ASE. Three of the most common enzymes with their chemical actions are * lipase breaks down fats * protease breaks down proteins * carbohydrase breaks down carbohydrates Enzyme uses Enzymes allow certain industrial processes to be carried out at normal temperatures and pressures, thereby reducing the amount of energy and expensive equipment needed. Enzymes are also used in the home, for example, in biological detergents. The table shows some common enzyme uses you should be familiar with. Uses of enzymes Enzyme Use rotease used to pre-digest proteins during the manufacture of baby foods lipase used together with protease in biological detergents to break down digest the substances in stains into smaller, water soluble substances car bohydrase used to convert starch syrup, which is relatively cheap, into sugar syrup, which is more valuable for example, as an ingredient in sports drinks isomerase used to convert glucose syrup into fructose syrup fructose is sweeter than glucose, so it can be used in smaller amounts in slimming foods Homeostasis The conditions inside the body must be controlled within narrow limits.This is called homeostasis. These conditions intromit water content, ion content, body temperature and extraction glucose concentration. The thermoregulatory centre is the part of the mind that monitors and controls body temperature. The pancreas meanwhile monitors and controls blood glucose concentration. It produces a hormone called insulin that reduces blood glucose levels. Diabetes is a disease which can be caused by insufficient insulin. Removing waste products desolate products must be removed from the body. If they are not, they will increase in concentration and may interfere with chemica l reactions or damage cells.Waste products that must be removed include carbon dioxide and urea. Waste product why is it produced? How is it removed? carbon dioxide it is a product of aerobic respiration through the lungs when we breathe out urea it is produced in the liver when excess amino acids are broken down the kidneys remove it from the blood and make urine, which is stored in the bladder temporarily Production and removal of waste products Water enters the body through food and drink. It is also a product of aerobic respiration in cells. If the amount of water in the body is wrong, cells can be damaged because too much water enters or leaves them.The pictures show how the amount of water lost as urine is controlled Controlling blood glucose The pancreas and insulin Thepancreasmonitors and controls the concentration ofglucosein the blood. It produces a hormone calledinsulin. Insulin causes glucose to move from the blood into cells. It lowers the blood glucose concentration if it has become too high. This can happen after eating a meal that is rich in carbohydrates (for example, sweets, potatoes, bread, sift or pasta). The pictures show how this works. Diabetes Diabetes is a disease where the concentration ofglucosein the blood is not controlled properly by the body.In theatrical role 1 diabetes, thepancreasdoes not produce eno-ughinsulin. This can hold in to high levels of glucose in the blood, which can be fatal. Types of Diabetes There are two types of discussion for diabetes * Careful monitoring of food intake, with particular care taken over carbohydrates which are digested into glucose. * Injecting insulin into the blood before meals. The extra insulin causes glucose to be taken up by the liver and other tissues. Cells get the glucose they need for respiration, and the blood glucose concentration stays normal. Temperature regulation Humanenzymeswork best at 37?C, so the bodys temperature is controlled. A part of the brain called thethermoregu latory centremonitors and controls body temperature. It gathers information as nerve impulses fromtemperature receptorsin * the brain these are new to the temperature of the blood flowing there * the skin these are sensitive to skin temperature endeavouring Sweating is one way to help poise the body. We sweat more in hot conditions, so more water is lost from the body. This water must be replaced through food or drink to maintain the balance of water in the body. Ions such as atomic number 11 ions and chloride ions are also lost when we sweat.They must be replaced through food and drink. If the bodys ion content is wrong, cells can be damaged. Temperature regulation higher If you become too hot or too cold, there are several(prenominal) ways in which your temperature can be controlled. They involve sweating, shivering, skin capillaries and whiskers. Too hot When we get too hot * Sweat glands in the skin release more sweat. This evaporates, removing heat energy from the skin. * kindred vessels leading to the skin capillaries become wider theydilate allowing more blood to flow through the skin, and more heat to be lost. Too cold When we get too cold * Muscles contract rapidly we shiver.These contractions need energy from respiration, and some of this is released as heat. * line of descent vessels leading to the skin capillaries become narrower theyconstrict- letting less blood flow through the skin and conserving heat in the body. The hairs on the skin also help to control body temperature. They lie tied(p) when we are warm, and rise when we are cold. The hairs trap a layer of air above the skin, which helps to insulate the skin against heat loss. Controlling temperature Too cold Too hot A Hair muscles pull hairs on end. B Erect hairs trap air. C Blood flow in capillaries decreases. D Hair muscles relax.Hairs lie flat so heat can escape. E Sweat secreted by sweat glands. Cools skin by evaporation. F Blood flow in capillaries increases. Remember Capillaries do not move up and down inside the skin. Temperature is posed by authoritative the amount of blood which flows through the capillaries. hormones Hormones are chemical substances that help to regulate processes in the body. Hormones are secreted by glands and travel to their target organs in the blood stream. Several hormones are involved in the female menstrual cycle. Hormones can be used to control human fertility and have advantages and disadvantages. Hormones and glandsHormones arechemicals secreted by glandsin the body. Different hormones affect different target organs. The bloodstream transports hormones from the glands to the target organs. Hormones regulate the functions of many cells and organs The target organ and effects of glands and hormones Gland Hormone Target organs Effect adrenal gland adrenalin indispensable organs, e. g. liver and heart Prepares body for action fight or flight. ovary estrogen ovaries, womb, pituitary gland Controls puberty and the menstrual cycle in females stimulates production of LH and suppresses the production of FSH in the pituitary gland. ovary progesterone uterus Maintains the lining of the womb suppresses FSH production in the pituitary gland. pancreas insulin liver Controls blood sugar levels. pituitary gland anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) kidney Controls blood water level by triggering uptake of water in kidneys. pituitary gland follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) ovaries Triggers egg ripening and oestrogen production in ovaries. pituitary gland luteinising hormone (LH) ovaries Triggers egg release and progesterone production in ovaries. testes testosterone male reproductive organs Controls puberty in males. Hormones in the menstrual cycle The menstrual cycle in women is a recurring process in which the lining of the uterus womb is prepared for gestation, and if pregnancy does not happen, the lining is shed at menstruation. Severalhormonescontrol this cycle, which includes controlling the release of an egg each month from an ovary, and changing the thickness of the uterus lining. These hormones are secreted by the ovaries and pituitary gland. FSH The hormone FSH is secreted by the pituitary gland. FSH makes two things happen 1. it causes an egg to come along in an ovary 2. it stimulates the ovaries to release the hormone oestrogen estrogenThe hormone oestrogen is secreted by the ovaries. Oestrogen makes two things happen 1. it jams FSH being produced so that nevertheless one egg advanceds in a cycle 2. it stimulates the pituitary gland to release the hormone LH LH The hormone LH causes the mature egg to be released from the ovary. This image shows how the level of oestrogen changes during the menstrual cycle. progesterone is another(prenominal) hormone secreted by ovaries it maintains the lining of the uterus and stays high during pregnancy. Hormone levels during the menstrual cycle Controlling fertility Human fertility is controlled byhormones.This means that knowledge of hormones can be used to finalise to increase, or reduce, the chances of fertilisation and pregnancy. Oral incumbrances Contraceptive pills The oral contraceptive, the pill, greatly reduces the chances of mature eggs being produced. The pill contains oestrogen, or oestrogen and progesterone. These hormones inhibit the production of FSH, which in turn stops eggs maturing in the ovaries. Fertility give-and-take Some women have difficulty becoming pregnant because they dont produce enough FSH to allow their eggs to mature. Fertility drugs contain FSH, which stimulates eggs to mature in the ovary. The offensive systemThe flyaway system allows the body to respond to changes in the environment. This is a process usually coordinated by the brain. Reflex actions are extra-rapid repartees tostimuli, and this process also involves the nervous system, but bypasses the brain. Receptors and effectors Receptors Receptors are groups of specialised cells. They can detect changes in the environment, which are calledstimuli, and turn them into galvanic impulses. Receptors are often located in thesense organs, such as the ear, eye and skin. Each organ has receptors sensitive to particular kinds of stimulus. Receptors sense organs receptors sensitive to scratch up touch, pressure, pain and temperature Tongue chemicals in food Nose chemicals in the air Eyes light Ears sound and position of the head The central nervous system CNS in humans consists of the brain and spinal stack. When a receptor is stimulated, it sends a signal along the nerve cells neurones to the brain. The brain, then co-ordinates the response. Effectors An effector is any part of the body that produces the response. Here are some examples of effectors * a muscle contracting to move the arm * a muscle press saliva from the salivary gland * a gland releasing ahormoneinto the blood NeuronesNeurones are nerve cells. They carry information as tiny electrical signals. There arethree different types of neurones, each with a slightly different function. 1. Sensory neuronscarry signals fromreceptorsto the spinal cord and brain. 2. Relay neuronscarry messages from one part of theCNSto another. 3. Motor neuronscarry signals from theCNSto effectors. The diagram downstairs shows a typical neuron in this case, a motor neuron. It has tiny branches at each end and a long lineament carries the signals. A motor neuron Synapses Where two neurones meet, there is a tiny gap called a synapse. Signals cross this gap using chemicals.One neurone releases the chemical into the gap. The chemical diffuses across the gap and makes the next neurone transmit an electrical signal. Reflex actions When a receptor is stimulated, itsends a signal to the central nervous system, where the brain co-ordinates the response. But sometimesa very quick response is needed, one that does not need the involvement of the brain. This is a reflex action. Reflex actions are rapid and happen without us thinking. For example, you would pull your hand away from a hot flame without thinking about it. The animation below allows you to step through each stage of the reflex arc.This is what happens 1. receptor detects a stimulus change in the environment 2. sensory neurone sends signal to put across neurone 3. motor neurone sends signal to effector 4. effector produces a response The way the gladiola in our eye adjusts the size of the pupil in response to bright or dusky light is also a reflex action. Inbrightlight * Radial muscles of the iris relax. * Circular muscles of the iris contract. * Less light enters the eye through the contracted pupil. Indimlight * Radial muscles of the iris contract. * Circular muscles of the iris relax. * More light enters the eye through the dilated pupil.Defending against infection Pathogens are microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses that cause disease. Bacteria release toxins, and viruses damage our cells. White blood cells can ingest and destroy path ogens. They can produce antibodies to destroy pathogens, and antitoxins to neutralize toxins. In vaccination pathogens are introduced into the body in a weakened form. The process causes the body to produce enough white blood cells to protect itself against the pathogens, while not getting diseased. Antibiotics are effective against bacteria, but not against viruses. Some strains of bacteria are tolerant to antibiotics.Pathogens bacteria Pathogens aremicroorganismsthat cause morbific disease. Bacteria and viruses are the main pathogens. Bacteria Bacteria aremicroscopical organ-isms. They come in many shapes and sizes, but even the largest are just 10 micrometres long 10 millionths of a metre. Bacteria areliving cellsand, in favourable conditions, can multiply rapidly. Once inside the body, they release poisons or toxins that make us feel ill. Diseases caused by bacteria include- -food poisoning -cholera -typhoid -whooping cough -gonorrhoea a sexually transmitted disease Pathog ens viruses Viruses are many times smaller thanbacteria.They are among the smallest organisms known and consist of a fragment of genetic material inside a protective protein coat. Viruses can notwithstanding reproduceinside host cells, and they damage the cell when they do this. A virus can get inside a cell and, once there, take over and make hundreds of thousands of copies of itself. Eventually the virus copies fill the whole host cell and burst it open. The viruses are then passed out in the bloodstream, the airways, or by other routes. Diseases caused by viruses include * grippe flu * colds * measles * mumps * rubella * chicken pox * back up White blood cellsThe body has different ways of protecting itself againstpathogens. The start-off defence is passive immunity. This is aimed at stopping the pathogen getting into the body in the first place. The bodys passive immunity system includes the skin,mucusandciliain the respiratory system, acid in the stomach, and enzymesin te ars. If a pathogen clam up manages to get into the body, the second defence takes over. This is calledactive immunity, and the white blood cells have key functions in this. Functions of the white blood cells White blood cells can * ingest pathogens and destroy them * produce antibodies to destroy pathogens produce antitoxins that neutralise the toxins released by pathogens In a written examination, it is easy to get carried away and quiver on about things such as invaders and battles, but stick to the point. Note that * the pathogens are not the disease they cause the disease * white blood cells do not eat the pathogens they ingest them * antibodies and antitoxins are not living things they are specialised proteins More about white blood cells There are several different types of white blood cells, each with different functions, but they can be put into two main groups * phagocytes or macrophages lymphocytes Phagocytes Phagocytes can easily pass through blood vessel walls into the surrounding tissue and move towardspathogensor toxins. They then either * ingest and absorb the pathogens or toxins * release an enzyme to destroy them Having absorbed a pathogen, the phagocytes may also send out chemical messages that help nearby lymphocytes to identify the type of antibody needed to neutralise them. Lymphocytes Pathogens contain certain chemicals that are foreign to the body and are called antigens. Each lymphocyte carries a specific type of antibody a protein that has a chemical fit to a certain antigen.When a lymphocyte with the distinguish antibody meets the antigen, the lymphocyte reproduces quickly, and makes many copies of the antibody that neutralises the pathogen. Antibodies neutralise pathogens in a number of ways * they bind to pathogens and damage or destroy them * they coat pathogens, clumping them together so that they are easily ingested by phagocytes * they bind to the pathogens and release chemical signals to depict more phagocytes Lymphocyt es may also release antitoxins that stick to the appropriate toxin and stop it damaging the body. Vaccination People can be immunised against a pathogen through vaccination.Different vaccines are needed for diffe-rentpathogens. Vaccination involves putting a small amount of an inactive form of a pathogen, or dead pathogen, into the body. Vaccines can contain * live pathogens treated to make them upright * harmless fragments of the pathogen * toxinsproduced by pathogens * dead pathogens These all act as antigens. When injected into the body, they stimulate white blood cells to produce antibodies against the pathogen. Because the vaccine contains besides a weakened or harmless version of a pathogen, the vaccinated person is not in insecurity of make growing disease although some people may uffer a sonant reaction. If the person does get infected by the pathogen later, the required lymphocytes are able to reproduce rapidly and destroy it. Vaccines and boosters Vaccines in early c hildhood can give protection against many serious diseases. Sometimes more than one vaccine is given at a time, like the MMR triple vaccine against mumps, measles and rubella. Sometimes vaccine boosters are needed, because the immune response memory weakens over time. Anti-tetanus injections may need to be repeated every ten years. Antibiotics Antibiotics are substances that killbacteriaor stop their growth.They do not work againstviruses it is difficult to develop drugs that kill viruses without also damaging the bodys tissues. How some common antibiotics work antibiotic how it works penicillin breaks down cell walls erythromycin stops protein synthesis neomycin stops protein synthesis vancomycin stops protein synthesis ciprofloxacin stops DNA replication Penicillin The first antibiotic penicillin was discovered in 1928 by Alexander Fleming. He discover that some bacteria he had left in a petri attend to had been killed by naturally occurring penicillium mould.Since the discove ry of penicillin, many other antibiotics have been discovered or developed. Most antibiotics used in medicine have been altered chemically to make them more effective and safer for humans. Resistance bacterial strains can develop resistance to antibiotics. This happens because of natural excerpt. In a large population ofbacteria, there may be some cells that are not affected by the antibiotic. These cells survive and reproduce, producing even more bacteria that are not affected by the antibiotic. MRSA is methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus.It is very dangerous because it is resistant to most antibiotics. It is important to evacuate over-use of antibiotics, so we can slow down, or stop, the development of other strains of resistant bacteria. Cleanliness One simple way to reduce the risk of infection is to maintain personal hygiene and to keep hospitals clean. Diet and Exercise Regular figure out and a balanced diet are needed to keep the body healthy. Too little food leads to a person being under charge and prone to unwellness, while too much food and not enough exercise leads to a person being overweight and prone to other illnesses.Excess cholesterol increases the risk of heart disease, and excess salt causes high blood pressure and increases the risk of heart disease and stroke. Nutrients A mixture of different types of food in the correct amounts is needed to maintain health. The main food groups are The main food groups food group found in required by our bodies for potatoes, pasta, bread, bananas, sugar and rice A source ofenergyfor other life processes. Sometimes referred to asfibre, which is actually just one very common type of carbohydrate. cheese, butter, glycerol trimargarate and oils Fats are needed to make cell membranes and toinsulateour bodies.They also contain important fat-solublevitamins. meat, fish, eggs and cheese Growth and repair. whole meal bread, fruit, vegetables and pulses The fibre or roughage in our diet is not digested, but is important because it allows the muscles in our intestines to move food through our system byperistalsis. metabolous rate A healthy diet contains all the different nutrients in the correct amounts, and provides the right amount of energy for each individual. An unbalanced diet can lead to a person becoming malnourished. They may be too thin or too fat as a result, and they may suffer from deficiency diseases.Chemical reactions Respiration is the chemical reaction that allows cells to release energy from food. The metabolic rate is the speed at which such chemical reactions take place in the body. It varies because of several factors, including * age * gender male or female * the parity of muscle to fat in the body * the amount of exercise and other physical activity * genetic traits The metabolic rate increases as we exercise and stays high for a while afterwards. The right amount of food Not enough food If you dont eat enough food, you will become too thin and ma y suffer from health problems.These include * irregular periods in women * reduced resistance to infection * deficiency diseases Deficiency diseases includerickets which affects proper growth of the material body and is caused by insufficient vitamin D andkwashiorkor which causes a swollen abdomen and is a result of insufficient protein. Problems such as these are more promising to affect people in the developing world, where it can be more difficult to get enough food. Too much food In warm weather, or when you dont do much exercise, you do not need to eat as much food as when it is cold or when you have exerted yourself physically.If you eat too much food without fetching enough exercise, you will become overweight. Very fat people are draw asobese. Overweight people may suffer from health problems, including * diabetes an illness in which the body is unable to control the amount of sugar in the blood * arthritis an illness in which the joints become worn, inflamed and painfu l * high blood pressure * heart disease The heart The heart is an organ that needs its own append of blood to keep it working. If the blood try is reduced, the heart muscle will not work properly and will become weaker.A heart attack happens when part of the heart does not get any blood because of a blocked artery. Cholesterol Cholesterol is a substance found in the blood. It is made in the liver and is needed for healthy cell membranes. However, too much cholesterol in the blood increases the risk of heart disease, and of diseased arteries. Good and bad cholesterol The bloodstream transports cholesterol around the body attached toproteins. The combination of cholesterol and protein is calledlipoprotein, and there are two types. 1. Low-density lipoproteins LDLs carry cholesterol from the liver to the cells. 2.High-density lipoproteins HDLs carry excess cholesterol back to the liver. LDLs are often called bad cholesterol because they lead to fat construct up on artery walls, whi ch causes heart disease. HDLs are often called good cholesterol because they help to stop fat building up in the arteries. Improving the balance A high proportion of HDLs to LDLs is good for a healthy heart. Monoun gross(a) and polyunsaturated oils as found in vegetable oils help to reduce cholesterol levels in the blood, and also increase the proportion of HDLs compared with LDLs. Check your understanding of such oils by looking atVegetable oils.There are also drugs that can improve high blood pressure and high cholesterol levels. Salt Table salt is sodium chloride. Too much salt in the diet can lead tohigh blood pressure, which in turn leads to an change magnitude risk of heart disease and strokes. Salt isfound naturally in many kinds of food, but more is added by food manufacturers and many people add even more when they are eating. Processed foods often have a high proportion of salt and fat. Salt added to food during processing accounts for about two-thirds of the comely s alt intake. Adaptation Adaptations cold climatesEvery organism has certain features or characteristics that allow it to live successfully in itshabitat. These features are called adaptations, and we say that the organism is alter to its habitat. Organisms living in different habitats need different adaptations. The polar stand up Polar bears are well adapted for survival in the Arctic. They have * a white appearance, as camouflage from prey on the snow and ice * thick layers of fat and fur, for insulation against the cold * a small surface area to volume ratio, to background heat loss * a greasy coat, which sheds water after swimmingThe snowshoe hare The snowshoe hare has white fur in the winter and reddish-brown fur in the summer. This means that it is camouflaged from itspredatorsfor most of the year. Arctic plants The Arctic is cold and verbose with very little rainfall. Plants in the Arctic often grow very close to the ground and have small leaves. This helps to conserve w ater and to avoid damage by the wind. Adaptations hot climates The camel Camels live in deserts that are hot and dry during the day, but cold at night. They are well adapted for survival in the desert.Camels have * Large, flat feetto spread their weight on the sand. * Thick furon the top of the body for shade, and thin fur elsewhere to allow easy heat loss. * A large surface area to volume ratioto maximise heat loss. * The might to go for a long time without water(they dont store water in their humps, but they lose very little through urination and sweating). * The ability totolerate body temperaturesup to 42C. * Slit-like nostrils and two rows of eyelashesto help keep the sand out. Desert plants Cacti are well adapted for survival in the desert. They have * Stems that can store water. Widespread root systems that can draw in water from a large area. In addition,cacti have spines instead of leaves. These minimise the surface area and so reduce water loss bytranspiration. The spine s also protect the cacti from animals that might eat them. Other adaptations Animals and plants may have specific features that adapt them to their environment. These include barbs and spines, poisons and warning garbles that deter predators and herbivores. Some harmless species may even resemble a poisonous or dangerous species to increase their chances of survival. Characteristics and classificationGenetic information from one species can be transferred to another species using genetic engineering. selective deportment, also called artificial woof, involves people taking charge of natural plectrum to produce new varieties of various species. A compartmentalisation is a type of a particular species that is different in some clear way from other varieties of that species. The characteristics of a species can be used to submit the species. This is sometimes difficult to do. Genetic engineering Genetic engineering is also called genetic modification (orGM). It is not the same a s copy.Although cloning techniques are used in genetic engineering, the two things should not be confused. The table shows some of the differences. Cloning Genetic engineering Produces exact copies. Produces a unique set of genes. Genes copied within the same species. Genes can be swapped across species. Selective breeding Natural selection Species gradually evolve by a process of natural selection. The individuals in any population with the familial features best suited to the environment in which they live are most likely to survive and reproduce. When they do, they pass on the genetic information for these features to their offspring.Over time, a species can change its appearance and may even become a new species, unable to reproduce successfully with individuals of the original species. Artificial selection Selective breeding, also called artificial selection, involves people taking charge of selection to produce new varieties of various species. A classification is a type of a particular species that is different in some clear way from other varieties of that species. For example, pedigree dogs come in separate of different varieties (or breeds) they may be different colours and sizes, but they are all muted dogs.Suppose you wanted a variety of cow that produced a lot of milk. This is what you could do * choose or select the cows in your herd that produce the most milk * only let these cows reproduce * select the offspring that produce the most milk * only let these offspring reproduce * keep repeating the process of selection and breeding until you achieve your tendency The key here is to identify the feature you want, and only breed from the individuals that have that feature. Here are some examples of what selective breeding can produce * hens that lay bad eggs of a particular colour cattle that produce lots of meat * tomato plants that produce lots of tomatoes * crops that are resistant to certain plant diseases Changing the characteristics of a species The characteristics of a species can be changed by * natural selection * selective breeding * genetic engineering. The table shows some differences between these. Natural selection Selective breeding Genetic engineering Number of generations needed for change very many many one Human intervention not needed needed needed Desired outcome known? no yes yes novel species formed? yes no noNotes This is the mechanism of change in Darwins hypothesis of evolution This is how new varieties or breeds are usually produced Genetic information can come from the same species or from a different one In selective breeding and genetic engineering, there is a goal or desired outcome. For example, we may wish to produce a variety of cow capable of producing a lot of milk, or a bacterium capable of producing insulin. There is no goal in natural selection although we find that particular species are well adapted to their environments, natural selection does not know what the species should be like.Individuals that are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive to reproduce, and so pass on their characteristics to the next generation, than those that are poorly suited. Classification You will remember from your Key pointedness 3 studies that species with similar characteristics are put into groups, and that this is called classification. Remind yourself of the basics of classification by lookinghere. Kingdoms The first rank in this system is called a farming. There are five kingdoms, based upon what an organisms cells are like 1. nimals (all multicellular animals) 2. plants (all green plants) 3. fungi (moulds, mushrooms, yeast) 4. prokaryotes (bacteria, blue-green algae) 5. protoctists (Amoeba, Paramecium) Further divisions There are several further ranks before we reach a particular species. In order, these are * kingdom * phylum * class * order * family * genus * species For example,lionshave the following classification * kingdom animal * phylum vertebrate * class mammal * order carniverous * family cat * genus big cat * species lion Difficulties with classificationIt can beeasyto classify a species. For example, we areHomo sapiens. Classification of species rank classification notes kingdom animals phylum chordates animals with backbones class mammals animals that are warm-blooded, have lungs and body hair, produce milk and give line of descent to live young order primates ape-like animals family hominids human-like animals genus homo humans species sapiens modern humans It can also bedifficultto classify a certain organism. For example, the single-celled organism called Euglena has some confusing characteristics.It has * chloroplasts, like a plant * no cell wall, like an animal * a flagellum to swim with, like some bacteria A twenty percent kingdom, called the protoctists, was made for organisms like Euglena. The Heart The heart requires its own constant blood bring out in order to keep beating and this is delivered through the coronary thrombosis arteries. Genetic and life-style factors can lead to the coronary arteries becoming blocked, and an increased risk of heart disease. The circulatory system Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the bodyscells, and waste products away from them.The circulatory system consists of * the heart, which is the muscular heart and soul that keeps the blood moving * the arteries, which carry blood away from the heart * the veins, which return blood to the heart * the capillaries, which are tiny blood vessels that are close to the bodys cells The diagram outlines the circu-latory system. To make things clear, oxygenated blood is shown in red, and deoxygenated blood in blue. Arteries and veins The arteries carry blood from the heart, while veins return blood to it. With both, their structure is related to their function. ArteriesBlood in the arteries is under high pressure generated by the heart. The arteries have * thick outer walls * thick laye rs of muscle and elastic fibres Veins The blood in veins is under lower pressure than the blood in arteries. The veins have * thin walls * thin layers of muscle and elastic fibres Unlike arteries, veins have one-way valves in them to keep the blood moving in the correct direction. The heart The heart is a muscular organ. It keeps beating at about 70 times per minute. You can see how it pumps the blood to the lungs and the rest of the body by analyse this animation.The muscle cells in the heart need a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients, and for their waste products to be removed. So the heart requires its own blood supply in order to keep beating. Blood vessels called thecoronary arteriessupply blood to the heart muscles. If they become blocked, aheart attackcan happen. Heart attacks A heart attack can happen because 1. butterball deposits build up in the coronary arteries. 2. A blood constipate can form on a fatty deposit. 3. The blood choke off can block a coronary artery. 4. Some heart muscle cells do not get the oxygen and nutrients they need. 5. These cells start to die.Causes of heart disease Heart disease is not usually caused by micro-organisms. It is caused by * genetic factors, which show as a family history of heart disease * lifestyle factors Heart disease is more common in the UK than in non-industrialised countries, and many other indust-rialised nations. This is due to lifestyle factorsincluding * smoking * leave out of regular exercise * stress leading to a fast heart rate * imbibing a lot of alcohol * poor diet A lack of exercise and a diet that is high in salt and saturated fat cause people to * become overweight * have high blood pressure have high levels of cholesterol in their blood These factors contribute to an increased risk of heart disease. Extra Sex hormones Changes occur at puberty because of sex hormones produced by the testes in boys, and the ovaries in girls. Some changes happen to everyone, both boys and girls, while o thers happen in one sex only. Here are some changes that happen to both boys and girls * pubic hair grows * underarm hair grows Here are some changes that happen to boys only * voice breaks gets deeper * hair grows on face and body * body becomes more muscular * testes and penis get bigger testes start to produce sperm cells Here are some changes that happen to girls only * hips get wider * breasts develop * ovaries start to release egg cells periods start Fertility in humans can be controlled by the artificial use of sex hormones, including contraceptive pills and fertility drugs. Competition Different species manage to survive and breed. The size of a predator population depends on the size of the prey population, and the reverse is true as well. Mutualism benefits both species involved in the relationship, but parasitism only benefits the parasite, not the host.Habitats have limited amounts of the resources needed by living organisms. Organisms mustcompetewith others in order to get enough of these resources to survive. If they are self-defeating and cannot move to another habitat, they will die. Animals Some of the resources that animals compete for * food * water * space Animals may also compete for mates so that they can reproduce. Plants Remember that plants make their own food usingphoto-synthesis, so they do not compete for food. Here are some of the things that plants do compete for * light * water space * mineral salts Human beings Human beings are very successful organisms. We compete with animals for food resources, and we compete with both animals and plants for space and water. The nitrogen cycle Seventy-nine per cent of the air around us is nitrogen. Living things need nitrogen to make proteins, but they cannot get it right away from the air because nitrogen gas is toounreactiveto be used to make new compounds within an organism. Plants can take up and use nitrogen when it is in a morereactiveform for example, innitratesorammonium salts.C hanging nitrogen into a more reactive substance is callednitrogen decideation. Nitrogen fixation Nitrogen fixation happens in three different ways The energy in a lightning bolt can split nitrogen molecules in the air, allowing each nitrogen atom toreactwith oxygen to formnitrogen oxides. The rain washes these oxides to the ground, where they formnitrates. * The Haber Processis used by industry to produce ammonia from nitrogen. Ammonia is then used to make the fertiliser that farmers spread on the soil to feed their crops. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in both the soil and root nodules of leguminous plants fix nitrogen into a form that can be used by plants. When plants are eaten by animals, the nitrogen compounds are passed on. Nitrogen compounds are returned to the soil by excretion and egestion from animals, or when plants and animals die and decay. The nitrogen compounds returned in this way arechanged backto nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria which live in the soil. Thisco mpletes the cycle, so that the percentage of nitrogen in the air remains constant. The nitrogen cycle

Benefits of Swimming

Swimming Rejuvenating, the body mind and aroma. Fitness development The fitness development of liquid buns be classified into1 group and 2 sub-sections Per geting moveming on a regular basis terminate military service nonpareil in building cardio which is important for both saddle loss and good cardiovascular health. When the example is attachd gradually by travel apoplexys in the pee, the punk rate and muscle activity is improved. This increases origination f petty(a) to your muscles, which results in much nutrients being delivered to them.It decreases risks of cardiovascular diseases like spirited blood pres accepted ands prevents obesity when calories argon being burnt during your cash in mavins chipsout sessions. evermore remember to warm up before a halal locomote workout session. After a workout session you cease do a few basic laps to cool down and help your muscles recover and relax your body after a workout session. When you are doing high-volume worko uts, with a good amount of br eathing, this is an aerobic blowming workout. Anaerobic swimming workouts have to do with sprinting.However, simply sprinting, even if it is on a tempo clock, does non make the workout anaerobic. By extending the rest period, and demanding the maximal move of the athlete during springs, is an anaerobic swimming workout. By just per general anatomying simple peeing manages cognise as water Aerobics, one rump aspire a long workout session. Your aerobic endurance is your ability to knead your whole body for a long period of time, at a moderate intensity like swimming. When you are first starting to take aim and you are not very active start dour slowly. To increase your aerobic level you need to overload your body.It is a low furbish up workout session and so any injuries to your joints and muscles are prevented. Equipment needed? When in competition Swimsuit Usually very tight and sometimes all-night down the legs and arms. This provides the least amount of drag so you take off is al lot faster. Goggles Protect your eyes and see everything more clearly avoid any damage to the eyes and contract water-borne infections. tough Cuts out drag that hair has ( weight unit wise). Swimming block The raised plan from which a swimmer starts their race. It has a non-slip surface.Ear plugs are made of rubber, they encourage ears from water and noise and cushy to install and remove Stopwatch is utilize to keep count of time for laps racing ect. Towel absorbent textile apply to dry the body. Racing Lane These lines are made of polypropylene rope and pliable plastic be adrifts, these separate the crime syndicate and are used for swimmers to have individual lanes. When in training Fins Work your legs and add actuation to your swimming with fins. Long fins are great for beginners = develop ankle flexibility. inadequate fins are great = speed to your swimming. Kickboard.To work your legs exclusively, it allows your upper b ody to float while you kick with your legs. Paddles Increase pull against the water. Where commode I swim? The ideal location in which to perform water aerobics is in an indoor swimming pool where the water temperature is controlled. Health clubs offer swimming facilities along with the regular gym membership, they provide a race hyphen pool with classes and programs were you would be watched over by a professional flight simulator so that you can obtain maximum results during perpetrate/training and handle no injury /health risks these however are the latest trends to do in group training.Outside ponds, pools or lakes can be used, but an indoor pool is preferred. Benefits of swimming Physical Benefits It reduces blood pres undisputable, and risk of having a stroke. It reduces your resting heart rate and increases your cardiac input. It makes your heart pump blood in effect and efficiently therefore your heart muscle strength increases Swimming as an exercise requires all the movement muscles to co-ordinate at the same time. pissing creates more resistance. As a result of this you develop stronger muscles, maintain knock-down(a) balance and ehabilitates you muscles. Good stretching habits, can greatly improve flexibility. The eloquence of the movements helps lengthen and stretch muscles giving the appearance of being more toned, and having a healthy physique. Swimming is a very low impact exercise pickings away any excess pressure on the bones, joints and muscles. It is one of the safest and cushioned forms of physical exercise. It improves the ability to control and maintain healthy weight During 30 minutes of swimming it is possible to burn 260 calories.Low water temperatures also stimulate blood circulation, builds up endurance and metabolism affable Benefits Whether at the beach or a pool the best form of recreation is swimming it is a lot of fun and can be great way to socialize, friendships are made and you meet/interact with pile from all di fferent walks of life history. You can join a water aerobics class or a masters swim practice and socialize while you workout because its a safe work out program. Spiritual/Emotional benefits Helps develop a positive position but mainly swimming forces you to regulate your breathing and allows more oxygen to flow into muscles.It also helps in massaging your muscles and relieves stress and tension. Being surrounded by the warm water facilitates a calming and meditative whimsey. Contributes to a feeling of well-being as well as renewing energy and tenet patience. For a first time swimmer it removes the fear of water, preferably swimming should be introduced at an early age. Environmental responsibilities you should consider Chlorine in swimming pools- The chemicals found in chlorinated water are effective in purifying your pool but are discovered to have blackball effects on the environment. Chlorine dissolves when mixed with water.It can also make out from water and enter air under certain conditions. Once in air or in water, chlorine reacts with other chemicals. It combines with inorganic stuff in water to form chloride salts, and with organic material in water to form chlorinated organic chemicals. Chlorine causes environmental harm at low levels. Plants and animals are not likely to store chlorine. However, laboratory studies show that vulnerability to chlorine in air can affect the immune system, the blood, the heart and the respiratory system of animals. Therefore Chlorine is especially harmful to organisms supporting in water and in oil. Chlorine affects towards humans It is also known that pure chlorine is very toxic, even small amounts can be deadly to your health. When small amounts of chlorine are breathed in during bypass time periods, it can affect the reputational system. Effects vary from coughing and actors assistant pains, skin and eyes. Alternatives include -Bromine has less of an odor therefore it can be used as a sanitiser for an indoor pools. Salt is another alternative. essentially you need a unit called a Salt Cell, which passes an electric accepted through the water and converts salt into chlorine. Cancer risk among people drunkenness chlorinated water is 93% higher than among those whose water does not contain chlorine. *Dont eat too much and then swim, allow at least an min after a meal before swimming. Dont swim after taking alcohol or on an empty stomach. Make sure your pool is clean dirty pools can give you an earache or maybe even an upset stomach. Over chlorinated pools will be more pernicious and are more dangerous. Always shower before and after swimming you never know what you might bring into the water, in terms of bacteria.When inside- Dont swim below diving boards, someone may land on your corpus always check areas where the depth of the pool changes of a sudden. Dont use a feign or fins in the pool rather save them for the beach. Dont run almost the edge of the pool, you may slip and hurt someone or yourself. Always check the temperature of the pools before diving in- make sure you do not dive in a shallow area. Always make sure you were your swimming caps, earplug and goggles, this prevents infection in the eyes, ears and chlorine damages your hair.Make sure you do not overly exercise (when you are tired give the axe and rest) and make sure you are in good shape to swim. When after-school(prenominal) or at the beach -Choose a safe area many another(prenominal) beaches have safe swimming areas clearly marked with buoy lines and with life guards on duty Beware of waves they can flip you over and perhaps injure you. Headlands and rocky areas can quickly be surrounded by tides and at some beaches the water depth can increase suddenly so go with caution to avoid this. Avoid strong currents they can drag you away from shore or onto rocks. Protect against heat stroke and dehydration in hot summer weather.Aim or conception of swimming Swimming is not only fu n but is one of the best ways to stay fit and healthy. By swimming regularly you will be leading a healthy lifestyle. It is an excellent form of exercise where all the muscles of the body are used when one swims. It is a sport that will bring kids fitness and enthralment for life. It enhances children and adults natural flexibility by exercising all of their major joints. Since swimming requires constant yield of oxygen to the muscles, it is considered as an aerobic exercise, and it is believed that this helps to reduce stress so that you can just tune out and relax.Swimming caters for all skill levels. You can perform many different exercises when in the water. It also helps develop coordination because it requires combinations of entangled movements of all parts of the body, enhancing muscle function, grace, and mobility. Not only does it feel great it is also effective in weight loss. As swimming is an easy and Safety when swimming simple exercise one feels refreshed. As you enjoy working out in the water your mind is at serenity and away from all the worries.